Arikah Map

Burmese Chinese

The Burmese Chinese (Traditional Chinese: 緬甸華人; pinyin: Miǎndiàn huárén; Minnan Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Biān-tián-hôa-lâng; Burmese: Burmese Chinese:Image:Bscript thayotlumyo.png; IPA: [təyoʊʔ lù myó]) are a group of overseas Chinese born or raised in Myanmar (formerly Burma). Although the Chinese officially make up three percent of the population (1,078,000), this figure may be underestimated because of intermarriage between them and the ethnic Bamar,[1] and because of widespread discrimination against minorities (which compels many to declare themselves as Bamar when applying for birth certificate or national identification card). Traditionally, the Chinese have dominated the Burmese economy, although many enterprises today are co-owned by the military.

Burmese Chinese:A bonchaung (Chinese Buddhist temple) in Latha Township, Yangon
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A bonchaung (Chinese Buddhist temple) in Latha Township, Yangon

Contents

Sub-ethnic groups

Generally, the Burmese Chinese in Lower Burma are divided into three main groups. The first consists of Cantonese-speakers (Burmese: eingyi to, lit. short-sleeved shirts) who arrived from Guangdong Province. The largest group consists of Hokkien-speakers (Burmese: eingyi shay, lit. long-sleeved shirts), who came from Fujian Province. The third consists of Hakka-speakers (Burmese: zaka, lit. mid-length sleeve ). The Hokkien and Cantonese comprise 45% of the ethnic Chinese population.[2] Hakkas are further subdivided into those with ancestry from Fujian Province and Guangdong Province, with each called ein-gyi shay ha-ka and eingyi to haka respectively. The groups have different stereotypical associations. The Cantonese are commonly thought of as the poorest of the Chinese, the Hokkiens are stereotypically wealthier, occupying high positions in the economy, and having connections to the government.The tayoke kabya are of Bamar and Chinese heritage. Kabya are often children of Chinese fathers and Bamar (Burman) mothers. They have a tendency to follow the customs of the Chinese more than of the Burmese. A large portion of Chinese have some kabya blood because Burmese citizenship can only be acquired by immigrants through intermarriage with persons of Bamar descent.

There are Chinese groups distinct from the Hokkien or Cantonese speaking Tayok Lu-myo of Lower Burma. These are the Panthay and Kokang of Upper Burma, mainly speakers of a Mandarin dialect of the Southwestern Mandarin branch, most akin to Yunnanese. The mountain-dwelling, farming Kokang and the largely trading Muslim Panthay are long considered separate local nationalities rather than a Chinese diaspora community. Combined, they form 21% of Burmese Chinese.[2]

Language

The Burmese Chinese typically speak Burmese as their mother tongue. Hokkien has quickly disappeared as a mother tongue among Burmese Chinese, while Cantonese has been well-preserved in Myanmar. For three decades, Ne Win's ban on Chinese-language schools caused declining numbers of Mandarin speakers. The Panthay and Kokang typically speak Mandarin Chinese as a first language. Chinese schools are growing in number today, because of the importance of Mandarin Chinese (note: often Standard Mandarin, the national language of Mainland China and Taiwan, as distinctive from the Southwestern Mandarin dialect of the Upper Burma, Kokang and Panthay). Mandarin and English are considered to be languages of the elite.

History

The earliest records of Chinese migration were in the Song and Ming dynasties.[2] In the 1700s, Ming Dynasty princes settled in Kokang (the northern part of present-day Myanmar). Chinese traders, however, would typically travel as far as the capital city as well as northern towns on the Irrawaddy such as Bhamo. Some of them stayed and started a Chinese community at Amarapura, and when King Mindon Min moved his capital to Mandalay in 1859, the Chinese were the only community that decided to stay behind. Their descendants, many intermarried into the host society, remain important and respected citizens of Amarapura. Another wave of immigration occurred in the 1800s under the British colonial administration. Britain encouraged immigration of Indians and Chinese to its colonial possessions, and such incentives with opportunities for work and enterprise and for accumulating wealth attracted many Chinese. They came to Burma via Malaysia.[2] The Chinese quickly became dominant in the highly lucrative rice and gem industries. Many became merchants and traders owning both wholesale and retail businesses. Their success was reflected in the popular Burmese expression, "Earn like the Chinese, save like the Indian, and don't waste money like the Bamar". They integrated well into Burmese society not least because they, like the Bamar, were of Sino-Tibetan stock and were Buddhists, implicit in the nickname pauk hpaw (lit. sibling)[3]. The Chinese are arguably the only other race the Bamar historically have a high regard for, not just for their ancient and uninterrupted civilisation but for their skills and intellect as well.

During the 1950s, Myanmar was one of the first countries to recognize the People's Republic of China as a nation. However, its own Chinese population was treated as aliens. The Burmese Chinese were issued foreign registration cards (FRC), which declared that they were citizens of China. A similar discrimination policy was set up for Indians. When the Chinese Communists expelled the Kuomintang, many fled to Myanmar and Thailand over the borders of Yunnan Province. The Burmese government fought and removed the armed KMT and forced them to Taiwan [4]; those who managed to stay prospered.

In 1962, Ne Win led a coup d'état and declared himself head of state. Although a kabya himself, he banned Chinese-language education, and created other measures to compel the Chinese to leave. Ne Win's government stoked up racial animosity and ethnic conflicts against the Chinese, who were terrorized by Burmese citizens, the most violent riots taking place at the time of the Cultural Revolution in China.[4] When Ne Win implemented the "Burmese Way to Socialism", a plan to nationalize all industries, the livelihoods of many entrepreneurial Chinese were destroyed and some 100,000 Chinese left the country.[4] All schools were nationalized, including Chinese-language schools. Beginning in 1967 and continuing throughout the 1970s, anti-Chinese riots continued to flare up and many believed they were covertly supported by the government.[5] Many Burmese Chinese left the country during Ne Win's rule, largely because of a failing economy and widespread discrimination.

Today, the majority of Burmese Chinese live in the major cities of Yangon, Mandalay, Taunggyi, Bago, and their surrounding areas. According to Global Witness, 30 to 40% of Mandalay's population consists of ethnic Chinese. Although there are Chinatowns (tayoke tan) in the major cities, the Chinese are widely dispersed. The northern region of Myanmar has seen an influx of mainland Chinese immigrant workers, black market traders and gamblers. In the Kachin State, which borders China in three directions, Mandarin Chinese is the lingua franca.

Education

Typically, the Burmese Chinese have placed a high importance on education. However, the lack of Burmese citizenship has prevented many Burmese Chinese from pursuing Ph.D.s and medical degrees. During the Ne Win era, persecution of minorities caused an exodus of the highly educated workforce. Those immigrating from Burma who held tertiary degrees were forced to pay a tax prior to leaving. Many Chinese left for the United States, Great Britain, and other western countries. This has caused dire problems for the Burmese economy as the current workforce is less well-educated not least due to the failing education system. Many Burmese Chinese study overseas, particularly in Thailand and Singapore.[6]

Culture

Religion

The majority of Burmese Chinese practise Theravada Buddhism, incorporating some Mahayana Buddhist and Taoist beliefs, such as the worship of Kuan Yin. Chinese New Year celebrations, as well as other Chinese festivals, are subdued and held privately. Clan associations are often the only places where the Chinese culture is embraced. There is a small minority of Panthay or Chinese Muslims (回教華人; ပန္‌းသေးလူမ္ယုိး, lit. "little flowers"), most of whom live in Mandalay.

Naming

According to publications of Longsei Tang, a clan association based in Yangon, the ten most common Chinese surnames in Yangon are:

  1. Li (李)
  2. Peng (彭)
  3. Shi (時)
  4. Dong (董)
  5. Min (閔)
  6. Niu (牛)
  7. Bian (邊)
  8. Xin (辛)
  9. Guan (關)

Burmese Chinese traditionally have Chinese names and Burmese names. Given names in various Chinese dialects are often transliterated into the Burmese language, using rough equivalents. For example, a Burmese Chinese person named 'Khin Aung' may have the Chinese name of 慶豐 (pinyin: Qìngfēng), with '慶' (pinyin: qìng) corresponding to 'Khin', and '豐' (pinyin: fēng) corresponding to 'Aung'. However, variations of transcription do exist (between dialects), and some Burmese Chinese do not choose to adopt similar-sounding Burmese and Chinese names. Because the Burmese lack surnames, many Burmese Chinese tend to pass on portions of their given names to future generations, for the purpose of denoting lineage.

Notable Burmese Chinese

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You can help Wikipedia by introducing appropriate citations.This article has been tagged since December 2006.

Notes

  1. ^ Hooker, Michael Barry (2002). Law and the Chinese in Southeast Asia. Institute of SoutheastAsian Studies. ISBN 9-8123-0125-9.
  2. ^ a b c d Mya Than (1997). Leo Suryadinata: Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians. ISBN 0-312-17576-0.
  3. ^ Aung, Pho Thar. "Tango with China", The Irrawaddy, 2003-09-16. Retrieved on 2006-06-05.
  4. ^ a b c d e Martin Smith (1991). Burma - Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London,New Jersey: Zed Books, 153-154,225-226,98,39.
  5. ^ Steinberg, David L. (2002). Burma: The State of Myanmar. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0-8784-0893-2.
  6. ^ Win, Htet. "The Road To Riches?", The Irrawaddy, 2004-07. Retrieved on 2006-06-05.
  7. ^ Backman, Michael. "Burma's banking meltdown goes unnoticed beyond its borders", The Age, 2003-03-30. Retrieved on 2006-06-22.
  8. ^ Kuppuswamy, C.S. (2004-09-11). MYANMAR: The shake- up and the fall out.. South Asia Analysis Group. Retrieved on 22 May, 2006.
  9. ^ Leong, S.T. (1997). Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History. Stanford University Press.
  10. ^ Backman, Michael. "Burma's banking meltdown goes unnoticed beyond its borders", The Age, The Age, 2003-03-30. Retrieved on 2006-06-22.
  11. ^ Zaw Htet. "FMI profits beat the business blues", The Myanmar Times, 2006-11-13. Retrieved on 2006-11-26.
  12. ^ Strachan, Paul (1989). Pagan - Art and Architecture of Old Burma. Kiscadale.

See also

Categories


Articles lacking sources from December 2006 | All articles lacking sources | Ethnic groups in Myanmar | Overseas Chinese groups

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