Chalukya dynasty

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Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal, built 740

Badami Chalukya Territories in the reign of Pulakesi II, c. 640

The Chalukya dynasty (Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು, IPA: [ʧaːɭukjə]) was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty is known as the Badami Chalukyas who ruled from their capital Badami from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakesi II. After the death of Pulakesi II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from the capital Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas in late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Basavakalyan till the end of the 12th century.

The rise of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the rise of Badami Chalukyas. For the first time in history, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire also saw the birth of efficient administration, rise in overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called Vesara. Around the 9th century, it also saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature in the Jaina Puranas, Veerashaiva Vachanas and Brahminical traditions. The 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Origin of Chalukyas

Natives of Karnataka

Old Kannada inscription, Pattadakal, 745

While opinions vary regarding the origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus is that they were native to the Karnataka region.^[1] An alternate argument is that the Chalukya were descendants of the "Seleukia" tribe of Iraq and that their conflict with the Pallava of Kanchi was, but a continuation of the conflict between ancient Seleukia and "Parthians", the proposed ancestors of Pallavas. However, this theory has been rejected as it seeks build lineages based simply on similar sounding clan names.^[2] A third theory that they were descendants of a chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku was put forward but this has failed to explain the difference in lineage. The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra where as Chalukya inscriptions address themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra, which incidentally is the same as their early overlords, the Kadambas of Banavasi. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas.^[3] Another record of Eastern Chalukyas conforms to the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess. She had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakesi I's father. However, there is inscriptional evidence that the father of Pulakesi I was Ranaranga.^[4]

The Chalukya inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit. Their inscriptions call them Karnatas and their names use indigenous Kannada titles such as Priyagallam and Noduttagelvom. The names of some Chalukya kings end with the pure Kannada term arasa (meaning "king" or "chief").^[5][6] The Rashtrakuta inscriptions speak of Chalukyas of Badami as Karnataka Bala (Power of Karnataka). Scholars have proposed that the word Chalukya originated from Salki or Chalki which is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement.^[7]

Sources of history

Inscriptions are the main source of information about the Badami Chalukya history. Important among them, the Badami cave inscriptions (578) of Mangalesa, Kappe Arabhatta record of 700, Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakesi II, the Kanchi Kailasanatha inscription and Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscriptions of Vikramaditya II all in Kannada provide more evidence of the Chalukya language. The earliest inscription of the Badami cliff dated 543 of Pulakesi I, the Mahakuta Pillar inscription (595) of Mangalesa and the Aihole inscription dated 634 of Pulakesi II are examples of Sanskrit inscriptions written in old Kannada script.^[8]The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit, in areas of the Indian peninsula outside what is known as Tamilaham (Tamil country).^[9] Several coins of the early Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found indicating usage of Kannada at the highest administrative levels.^[10] Inscriptions of the Chalukyas have been translated and recorded by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India.^[11]

Portrait of Hiuen Tsiang

Foreign notes

Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller had visited the court of Pulakesi II. At the time of this visit, as mentioned in the Aihole record, Pulakesi II had divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising of 99,000 villages each. This empire possibly covered present day Karnataka, Maharashtra and coastal Konkan. Hiuen-Tsang, impressed with the governance of the empire observed that the benefits of king's efficient administration was felt far and wide.^[12] Later, Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakesi II.^[13]

Legends

Vidyapati Bilhana, the famous poet in the court of Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana, mentions a legend in his work, Vikramankadeva Charita:

Indra once requested Brahma to create a hero who would put an end to Godlessness in the world and punish the wicked. Agreeing to his request, Brahma looked into his Chuluka (hollow of the hands) while performing the Sandhya, and lo! From there sprang a mighty warrior. He was called "Chalukya" and he became the eponymous ancestor of the line. In it were born two great heroes, Harita and Manavya who raised the Chalukyas into distinct position. This story is repeated and elaborated in the Ramastipundi grant of Vimaladitya of the Eastern Chalukya family.

Another legend in the Handarike inscription of Vikramaditya VI claims that the Chalukyas were born in the interior of the Chuluka (hollow of the palm) of the sage Haritipanchashikhi when he was pouring out libations to the Gods. The Chalukyas claimed to have been nursed by the Sapta Matrikas (the seven divine mothers). It was a popular practice to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom in ancient times.^[14]

According to a Kalyani Chalukya inscription of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukyas originally hailed from Ayodhya where fifty-nine kings, and later sixteen more, of this family ruled from Dakshinapatha (South India) where they had migrated.^[15]

Periods in Chalukya history

The Chalukyas ruled over the central Indian plateau of Deccan for over 600 years. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. These are the Chalukyas of Badami, who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century, and the two sibling dynasties of Chalukyas of Kalyani or the Western Chalukyas and the Chalukyas of Vengi or the Eastern Chalukyas.^[16]

Chalukyas of Badami

In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes began to happen in the area south of the Vindyas— the Deccan and Tamilaham. The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.^[17] The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakesi I in 550.^[18] Pulakesi I took Vatapi (Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital. Pulakesi I and his descendants are referred to as Chalukyas of Badami. They ruled over an empire that comprised of the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan. Pulakesi II was perhaps the greatest emperor of the Badami Chalukyas. Also known as Immadi Pulakesi, he is considered one of the great kings in Indian history.^[19] His queen was Kadamba Devi, a princess from the dynasty of Alupas. They maintained close family and marital relationship with the Alupas of South Canara and the Gangas of Talakad. Pulakesi II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada. He then defeated the Vishnukundins in the southeastern Deccan. Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory by attacking and occupying the Chalukya capital Vatapi (Badami) temporarily.

The Badami Chalukya dynasty went in to a brief decline following the death of Pulakesi II due to internal feuds. It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire. The empire reached a peak during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II who defeated the Pallava Nandivarman II and captured Kanchipuram. The last Badami Chalukya king Kirtivarman I was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga in 753. At their peak they ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri to the Narmada.

Chalukyas of Kalyani

Main article: Western Chalukyas

The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the Rashtrakutas. While the popular theory is that the Kalyani Chalukyas belonged to the Badami Chalukya line,^[20] objections have been raised by some historians indicating they may have been unrelated to the Early Chalukya family.^[21] However, it has also been noticed that the Badami Chalukyas had titles like Satyashraya, which is also the name of a Kalyani Chalukya prince and that they used titles ending with Malla which was seen commonly in other Chalukya families of the area.^[22] Irrespective of their exact origin, the reign of the Kalyani Chalukyas was a golden age in Kannada literature.^[23] Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi-1000 (present day Indi taluk, Bijapur district) overthrew Karka II and re-established the Chalukyan kingdom and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.^[24] This dynasty came to be known as the Western Chalukya dynasty or Later Chalukya dynasty.

The Western Chalukyas ruled for another 200 years and were in constant conflict with the Cholas and their cousins the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the greatest ruler of the dynasty. His fifty year reign is called Chalukya Vikrama Era.^[25] The Western Chalukyas went into their final dissolution c.1180 with the rise of the Hoysalas, Kakatiya and Seuna.

Eastern Chalukyas

Main article: Eastern Chalukyas

Pulakesi II (608 – 644) conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy.^[26] On the death of Pulakesi II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi outlived the main Vatapi dynasty by many generations. The Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada descent. However after a period of time local factors took over and they gave importance to Telugu language.^[27] Telugu literature owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas.^[28]

Art and Architecture

Mallikarjuna and Kashi Vishwanatha Temples, Pattadakal, built 745

Dancing Shiva in Badami

The period of Badami Chalukya dynasty saw art flourish in South India. It brought about some important developments in the realm of culture, particularly in the evolution and proliferation of a new style of architecture known as Vesara, a combination of the South Indian and the North Indian building styles. Sage Bharata's dance Natyasastra was in an advanced state of development.^[29] One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time and is called as Karnata Dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.^[30] The Vesara style influenced the Eastern Chalukyas. This is evidenced by the presence of similar style temples in Alampur in Kurnool district of present day Andhra Pradesh.^[31] The Kalyani Chalukyas further refined the Vesara style with an inclination towards Dravidian concepts, especially in the sculptures. They built fine monuments in the Tungabhadra - Krishna river doab in present day Karnataka.

Badami Chalukyas

The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700, remain in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.^[32]

The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami and Aihole are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them.^[33] This is the beginning of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style.

In Aihole, the Durga temple (6th century), Ladh Khan temple (450), Meguti temple (634), Hucchimalli and Huccappayya temples (5th century), Badami Cave temples (600) are examples of early Chalukyan art. The majestic temples at Pattadakal were commissioned by Vikramaditya II (740). Here the Virupakshaand Mallikarjuna (740), Sangameswara (725) and a Jain temple are in the Dravidian style while Jambulinga, Kasivisweswara and Galaganatha (740) are in the Northern nagara style. The Papanatha (680) temple shows an attempt to combine the Northern and Southern styles.

According to some art critics, the Badami Chalukya style is a "prayaga" or confluence of formal trends of architecture, the dravida and nagara. The temples were a result of religious enthusiasm and intensity of purpose.^[34]

See also: Badami Chalukya Architecture, Pattadakal, Badami, and Aihole

Literature

Hindu Cave No.3, Badami, 578

The rule of the Chalukyas is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu languages. During this time, writing epic narratives and poetry in Sanskrit and Prakrit were very popular. However during the 9th - 10th century, Kannada language had already seen some of its greatest writers. The three gems of Kannada literature, Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna belonged to this period.^[35] In the 11th century, Telugu literature was born under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer. Famous writers in Sanskrit from this period were Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara a book on Hindu law. Somesvara III was a great scholar and king compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa.^[36]

From the period of the Badami Chalukya however no major Kannada literary work has been recovered, though many works have been referenced in later centuries. The extant Kappe Arabhatta record of 700 in tripadi (three line) metre is considered the earliest work in Kannada poetics. The literary work Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, belonged to the period of Pulakesi II with the great king himself as the hero.^[37] Other Kannada writers of this time were Syamakundacharya of 650 who wrote Prabhrita, the celebrated Srivaradhadeva also called Tumubuluracharya of 650 (who wrote Chudamani, a commentary on Tattvartha-mahashastra in 96,000 verses), King Durvinita, and others.^[38] The Aihole inscription (634) of Pulakesi II written by court poet Ravi Kirti in old Kannada script and Sanskrit language is considered as an excellent piece of poetry.^[39] In Sanskrit, a few verses of a poetess called Vijayanaka has been preserved.

Badami Chalukya Government

Army

Badami countryside

The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephant corps and a powerful navy. The Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsiang mentions the Chalukya army had hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to battle.^[40] It was with their navy that they conquered Revatidvipa (Goa) and Puri on east coast of India. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term Karnatabala referring to their powerful armies.^[41] Taxes were levied and called Herjunka, Kirukula, Bilkode and Pannaya.

Land governance

The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas (Mandala), Vishaya (district), Bhoga (group of 10 villages) which is similar to the Dasagrama unit used by the Kadambas. At the lower levels of administration, the Kadamba style fully prevailed. The Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit called Dasagrama.^[42] There were many autonomous regions ruled by feudatories like Alupas, Gangas, Banas, Sendrakas etc. Local assemblies looked after local issues. Groups of mahajanas (learned brahmins), looked after agraharas (like Ghatika or place of higher learning) like the ones at Badami (2000 mahajans) and Aihole (500 mahajanas).

Coinage

Badami Jain Cave No. 4, 6th century

The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the northern kingdoms.^[43] The coins had Nagari and Kannada legends. They minted coins with symbols of temples, lion or boar facing right and the lotus. The coins weighed 4 grams and were called honnu in old Kannada and had fractions such as fana and the quarter fana, whose modern day equivalent being hana (literally means, money). A gold coin called Gadyana is mentioned in some record in Pattadakal which later came to be known a varaha which was also on their emblem.

Religion

The rule of the Badami Chalukya was a period of religious harmony. They were themselves initially followers of Vedic Hindusim, as seen in the various temples dedicated to many popular Hindu deities with Aihole as the experimental laboratory.^[44] Pattadakal is the location of their grandest architecture. The worship of Lajja Gauri, the fertility goddess was equally popular. Later from the time of Vikramaditya I took an inclination towards Shaivism and sects like Pashupata, Kapalikas and Kalamukhas existed. However they actively encouraged Jainsm and attested to by one of the Badami cave temples and other Jain temples in the Aihole complex. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesi II was a Jain. Buddhism was on a decline having made its ingress into Southeast Asia, as confirmed by Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole and Kurtukoti, Puligere (Laksmeshwara in Gadag district) were primary places of learning.

Society

The Hindu caste system was present and prostitution was recognised by the government. Some kings had concubines (Ganikas) who were given much respect,^[45] sati was perhaps absent as widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records. Devadasis' were present in temples. Sage Bharata's Natyashastra the precursor to Bharatanatyam, the dance of South India was popular as seen in many sculptures and mentioned in inscriptions.^[46] Women enjoyed political power in administration. Queens Vijayanka, a noted Sanskrit poetess, Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya and Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II who fought wars stand as examples.

In popular culture

The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning in the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions. This is clear from an architectural point of view in that the Chalukyas spawned the Vesara style of architecture which includes elements of the northern nagara and southern dravida styles. The expanding Sanskritic culture mingled in a region where local Dravidian vernaculars were already popular.^[47] Dravidian languages maintain these influences even today. This influence also helped enrich literature in these languages.^[48] The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit work Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwara in the court of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature, Mitakshara is a commentary on Yajnavalkya and is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India. An Englishman Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system.^[49] It was during the Chalukya rule that the Bhakti movement gained momentum in south India in the form of Ramanujacharya and Basavanna later spreading to north India.

A yearly celebration called Chalukya utsava, a three-day festival of music and dance organised by the Government of Karnataka is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole.^[50] The event is a celebration of the glorious achievements of the Chalukyas in the realms of arts, crafts, music and dance. The program which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole is inaugurated by the Chief Minister of Karnataka. Singers, dancers, poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event. In the February 26, 2006 celebration, 400 art troupes from different parts of the country had taken part. Colorful cut outs of the Varaha the Chalukya emblem, Satyasraya Pulakesi (Pulakesi II), famous sculptural masterpieces like Durga, Mahishasura-mardhini (Durga killing demon Mahishasura) were seen everywhere. The program at Pattadakal is named Anivaritacharigund vedike after the famous architect of the Virupaksha temple, Gundan Anivaritachari. At Badami it is called Chalukya Vijayambika Vedike and at Aihole, Ravikirti Vedike after the famous poet and minister in the court of Pulakesi II. RaviKirti is the author of the Aihole inscription of 634 which is considered as a masterpiece in medieval Sanskrit poetry written in Kannada script. Souvenirs with Sri Vallabha and Satyasraya written on, were available (these were the titles taken commonly by the kings of the Badami dynasty) and CD's and DVD's detailing the history, culture etc. of the region were sold.Immadi Pulakeshi, a Kannada movie of the 1960's starring Dr. Rajkumar celebrates the life and times of the great king.

See also

• Eastern Chalukyas
• Western Chalukyas
• Chalukya Cholas
• Hoysala Empire
• Chola dynasty

Notes

References

External links

• Maharashtra List of rulers of Maharashtra. Retrieved on 2006-11-10.
• The Chalukyan magnificence. Retrieved on 2006-11-10.
• Coins of Chalukyas. Retrieved on 2006-11-10.
• Coins of Alupas. Retrieved on 2006-11-10.

   

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