Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom
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- For Government policy, see Energy policy of the United Kingdom
Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom has been receiving increased attention over recent years. Key factors behind this are the UK Government's commitment to reducing carbon emissions, the projected 'energy gap' in electricity generation, and the increasing reliance on imports to meet national energy needs.
Contents |
Carbon emissions
Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5% below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012. Beyond this, the Government has also committed to cutting carbon dioxide emissions by 20% by 2010, 60% by 2050, and 80% by 2100, compared to 1990 levels. These reductions are thought to be those required to stabilise atmospheric carbon dioxide at 550ppm (compared to current levels of 380ppm), although latest thinking is that stabilisation at this level is probably insufficient to avoid dangerous climate change.
The achievement of the first of these targets should have been made considerably easier due to an inadvertent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions caused by the displacement of coal by gas in electricity generation. Compared to coal, gas produces around 30% less carbon dioxide when burnt. Filling the electricity generation gap (see below) while cutting emission levels presents a significant challenge. Carbon emissions from electricity generation have already risen 15% since 1997 [1], though were still 15.9% lower than 1990 levels [2].
It is currently expected that the reduction by 2010 will actually be in the 15-18% range, although the 20% target remains. Carbon emissions reached their lowest since 1990 in 1999, when 151.7 million tonnes were produced.
The following are the annual figures for carbon emissions (in millions of tonnes):
- 1990: 165.4
- 1991: 167.3 (+1.2% from 1990)
- 1992: 162.8 (-1.6% from 1990)
- 1993: 158.8 (-4.0% from 1990)
- 1994: 156.7 (-5.2% from 1990)
- 1995: 154.1 (-6.8% from 1990)
- 1996: 160.6 (-3.2% from 1990)
- 1997: 153.8 (-7.0% from 1990)
- 1998: 154.2 (-6.7% from 1990)
- 1999: 151.7 (-8.3% from 1990)
- 2000: 153.2 (-7.4% from 1990)
- 2001: 157.3 (-4.9% from 1990)
- 2002: 152.9 (-7.6% from 1990)
- 2003: 156.1 (-5.6% from 1990)
- 2004: 156.9 (-5.1% from 1990)
- 2005: 157.4 (-4.8% from 1990)
(source DTI)
These figure exclude the effects of carbon sinks. They also exclude carbon emissions from international aviation and international shipping, which together rose by 4.58 tonnes between 1990 and 2004 (source defra).
Final energy consumption
During 2004, the total energy consumed in the UK was the equivalent to 161.1 million tonnes of oil (an increase of 9.37% compared to the equivalent of 147.3 million tonnes of oil used in 1990). This represented 67.6% of the total energy used; the other 32.4% was lost in converting or transmitting the energy, or was used by the energy industries themselves before it reached the consumers.
Final energy consumption was used by consumers in the following proportions:
- Transport – 35.63% (33.00% in 1990)
- Domestic – 30.23% (27.70% in 1990)
- Industry – 21.17% (26.27% in 1990)
- Services – 12.91% (13.03% in 1990)
(source DTI)
Energy imports
With large coal reserves, and the extraction of North Sea oil and gas that started in the 1970s, until the 2000s the UK has been one of the few countries to have been largely self sufficient in energy, and indeed a net-exporter of oil and gas in recent decades.
Due to the decline in North Sea production, and the costs of mining and using coal cleanly, unless action is taken to reduce demand, it is expected that the UK will become a major importer of oil and gas by 2015. After becoming a net exporter of gas in 1997, the UK became a net importer again in 2004.
Electricity supply
With the development of the national grid, the switch to using electricity, UK electricity consumption increased by around 150% between the post war nationalisation of the industry in 1948 and the mid 1960s. During the 1960s growth slowed as the market became saturated.
Fuel sources
During the 1940s some 90% of the generating capacity was fired by coal, with oil providing most of the remainder.
The UK started to develop a nuclear generating capacity in the 1950s, with Calder Hall being connected to the grid on 27 August 1956. Though the production of weapons-grade plutonium was the main reason behind this particular power station, other civil stations followed, and 26% of the nation's electricity was generated from nuclear power at its peak in 1997.
Despite the flow of North Sea oil from the mid 1970s, oil fuelled generation remained relatively small and continued to decline.
Starting in 1993, and continuing through to the 1990s, a combination of factors lead to a so-called dash for gas, during which the use of coal was scaled back in favour of gas fuelled generation. This was sparked by the privatisation of the National Coal Board, British Gas, the Central Electricity Generating Board, the introduction of laws facilitating competiton within the energy markets, and the availability of cheap gas from the North Sea. In 1990 just 1.09% of all gas consumed in the country was used in electricity generation. By 2004 the figure was 30.25% (DTI figures).
By 2004, coal use in power stations had fallen by 43.6% (50.5 million tonnes, representing 82.4% of all coal used in 2004) compared to 1980 levels, though up slightly from its low in 1999 (DTI figures).
From the mid 1990s, new renewable energy sources, began to contribute to the electricity generated, adding to a small hydroelectricity generating capacity.
By 2004, total electricity production stood at 382.7 TWh (up 23.7% compared to 309.4 TWh in 1990), generated from the following sources:
- gas – 39.93% (0.05% in 1990)
- coal – 33.08% (67.22% in 1990)
- nuclear – 19.26% (18.97% in 1990)
- renewables – 3.55% (0% in 1990)
- hydroelectric – 1.10% (2.55% in 1990)
- imports – 1.96% (3.85% in 1990)
- oil – 1.12% (6.82% in 1990)
(source DTI)
UK Government energy policy expects that the total contribution from renewables should rise to 10% by 2010. The Scottish Executive has a target of generating 17% to 18% of Scotland's electricity from renewables by 2010 [3], rising to 40% by 2020 [4].
The UK 'energy gap'
In the early years of the 2000s, concerns grew over the prospect of an 'energy gap' in UK generating capacity. This is forecast to arise because it is expected that a number of coal fired power stations will close due to being unable to meet the clean air requirements of the European Large Combustion Plant Directive (directive 2001/80/EC). [5] In addition, the UK's four remaining Magnox nuclear stations and four of the seven AGR nuclear stations will all have closed by 2015. However the oldest AGR nuclear power station recently had its life extended by ten years [6], and it is likely many of the others can be life-extended, reducing the potential gap. [7]
A report from the industry in 2005 forecasted that, without action to fill the gap, there would be a 20% shortfall in electricity generation capacity by 2015. Similar concerns were raised by a report published in 2000 by the Royal Commission on Environment Pollution (Energy - The Changing Climate). A Government review is currently under way [8], and has attracted considerable press coverage, in particular in relation to the prospect of constructing a new generation of nuclear power stations in order to prevent the rise in carbon dioxide emissions that would arise if other conventional power stations were to be built.
Plugging the energy gap
The first move to plug the UK's energy gap was the announcement by Centrica, in June 2006, that they are to go ahead with the construciton of the conventionally gas-fired Langage Power Station.
Beyond relying on gas fired plants, there are a number of options that might be used to provide the new generating capacity, while minimising carbon emissions.
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuel power plants might provide a solution if there was a satisfactory and economical way of reducing their carbon emissions. Carbon capture might provide a way of doing this, however the technology is relatively untried and costs are relatively high. As yet (2006) there are no powerplants in operation with a full carbon capture and storage system.
Nuclear
While nuclear power doesn't produce carbon dioxide in generation (though the construction, mining, waste handling and disposal, and decommissioning do generate carbon emissions), it raises other environmental and security concerns. Despite this, it has great potential for generating electricity. In France, for example, 80% of the country's electricity production is nuclear powered. However, even with changes to the planning system to speed applications, there are doubts over whether the necessary timescale could be met, and over the financial viability of nuclear power. With no nuclear plants having been constructed since Sizewell B in 1995, there are also likely to be capacity issues within the native nuclear industry. The existing privatised nuclear suppler, British Energy, has also been in financial trouble since 2002.
- main article: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom.
Wind
A March 2006 report by the British Wind Energy Association forecast that onshore windfarms should be able to supply nearly 5% of the national electricity requirements by 2010 (6,000 MW) [9]. There is considerable scope for further growth (16,600 MW had been installed in Germany by 2004, for example [10]). The development of offshore windfarms in the UK is more recent, with only 4 operational at the end of 2005 generating only 213.80 MW, though others are in the pipeline.
- main article: Wind power in the United Kingdom
Wave and tide power
Due to the island location of the UK, the country has great potential for generating electricity from wave power and tidal power.
To date, wave and tidal power have received very little money for development and consequently have not yet been exploited on a significant commercial basis due to doubts over their economic viability in the UK [11]. However the Portuguese are currently installing the World's first commercial wave power plant, generating 24MW, using technology developed in Scotland [12].
Cogeneration
Combined heat and power plants, where 'waste' hot water from generating is used for district heating, are also a well tried technology in other parts of Europe. While it heats about 50% of all houses in Denmark, Finland, Poland, Sweden and Slovakia, it currently only plays a small role in the UK. It has, however, been rising, and had reached an installed capacity of 5,777MWe by 2004, up from around 2,500 MWe in 1990. The Government has targeted 10,000 MWe by 2010.
Biofuels
Gas from sewage and landfill (biogas) has already been exploited in some areas. In 2004 it provided 129.3 GWh (up 690% from 1990 levels), and was the UK's leading renewable energy source, representing 39.4% of all renewable energy produced (including hydro) (DTI figures) .
Other biofuels can provide a close-to-carbon-neutral energy source, if locally grown. In South America and Asia, the production of biofuels for export has in some cases resulted in significant ecological damage, including the clearing of rainforest. In 2004 biofuels provided 105.9 GWh, 38% of it wood. This represented an increase of 500% from 1990 (DTI figures) .
Solar electricity
In some countries the installation of solar electricity has already received considerable Government support. At the end of 2004 the UK's installed capacity of 8,164 MWp (Megawatts peak) represented just 0.08% of the European total. By way of comparison, due to their plans to phase out nuclear energy there is a growing (though heavily subsidised) capacity in Germany, where 794,000 MWp had been installed by the end of 2004 (79% of all European capacity). The European Commission anticipates that Germany may have installed around 2,000,000 MWp by 2010. European Commission figures.
Microgeneration
Microgeneration technologies are seen as having considerable potential by the Government. However the micorgeneration strategy they launched in March 2006 [13] was seen as a disappointment by many commentators [14]. Microgeneration involves the local production of electricity by homes and businesses from low-energy sources including small scale wind turbines, ground source heat pumps and solar electricity installations. The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 [15] is expected to boost the number of microgeneration installations [16].
Community energy systems
Sustainable community energy systems, pioneered by Woking Borough Council, provide an integrated approach to using cogeneration, renewables and other technologies to provide sustanable energy supplies to a community. It is expected that the same approach will be developed in other towns and cities, including London [17].
Energy conservation by sector
Much of the emphasis in energy debates tends to focus on the supply side of the issue, and ignore the demand. A number of commentators are concerned that this is being largely overlooked, partly due to the strength of the energy industry lobby. Energy conservation also has great potential, and may be able to significantly cut the size of the supposed energy gap, if early and concerted action is taken.
Housing
Along with road transport, domestic housing is currently one of the major obstacles to achieving carbon reduction targets. Housing currently accounts for just over 30% of all carbon dioxide emissions in the UK, and by 2010 the emissions from housing are expected to have risen 18.5% above 1990 levels [18]. This rise is projected to continue beyond 2010. While some action is being taken on new buildings, particularly due to the 2006 changes to the Building Regulations, relatively little is being done to improve the existing housing stock.
- main article: Energy efficiency in British housing.
Transport
Transport continues to grow as a significant user of fuel in the UK, and along with housing, this continues to be one of the major challenges to achieving the Government's carbon reduction targets.
By 2003 the amount of fuel used by transport had risen by around 60% since 1970. While oil is the main energy source, electricity and LPG make up a small percentage. Carbon emissions from transport have almost doubled over this period. Increasing car usage, increasing engine sizes, and levels of congestion are some of the problem areas, as is increasing air travel.
Efforts to reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide and particulates from diesel vehicles have actually lead to an increase in fuel consupmtion and carbon dioxide emissions. Current technology should allow further reductions in emmisions without increases in fuel consumption, and hopefully future technology will allow fuel consumption, and therefore CO2 emissions, to reduce.
During the 1990s the Fuel Price Escalator was used to raise road fuel taxes in an attempt to reduce vehicle usage and cut emissions. The mechanism was abandoned in the wake of the 2000 fuel protests.
From 2008, a Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation is being introduced, under which petrol and diesel are likely to be blended with 5% biofuels by 2010. It is anticipated that this will cut carbon emissions in the transport sector by between 2% and 3%.
Industry
Compared to 1990, energy use by industry had fallen by over 5% by 2004.
The highest profile initiative to cut carbon emissions is the European Union Emission Trading Scheme, which is operated in the UK under the 'Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Scheme Regulations'. Under Phase I of the scheme, the UK was allocated an allowance of 736 million tonnes of CO2 for the period 2005-2007 [19]. An annual average of 246.2 million tonnes has been set for the Phase II period (2008-2012) [20].
Other measures affecting industry include the Climate Change Levy.
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Energy research
Historically, public sector support for energy research and development in the UK has been provided by a variety of bodies with little co-ordination between them. Problems experienced have included poor continuity of funding, and the availability of funding for certain parts of the reseach-development-commercialisation process but not others. Levels of public funding have also been low by international standards, and funding by the private sector has also been limited.
Research in the area of energy is carried out by a number of public and private sector bodies:
The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council funds an energy programme [21] spanning energy and climate change research. It aims to develop, embrace and exploit sustainable, low carbon and/or energy efficient technologies and systems to enable the UK to meet the Government’s energy and environmental targets by 2020. It's research covers include renewable, conventional, nuclear and fusion electricity supply as well as energy efficiency, fuel poverty and other topics.
Since being established in 2004, the UK Energy Research Centre [22] carries out research into demand reduction, future sources of energy, infrastructure and supply, energy systems, sustainability and materials for advanced energy systems.
The Energy Technologies Institute, expected to begin operating in 2008, is to accelerate the development of secure, reliable and cost-effective low-carbon energy technologies towards commercial deployment.
In relation to buildings, the Building Research Establishment [23] carries out some research into energy conservation.
See also
- Carbon footprint
- Climate change
- Energy policy
- Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion
- Future energy development
- Global warming
- Greenhouse effect
- List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
- Peak oil
- Are We Changing Planet Earth?
- An Inconvenient Truth
- Proposed oil phase-out in Sweden
- Renewable energy in the European Union
- Navarra, Spain (targeting 100% renewable energy use by 2010)
External links
- IEA Graph: Evolution of Electricity Generation by Fuel from 1971 to 2003 (pdf)
- DTI UK Energy Statistics
- DTI 2006 Energy Review
- DEFRA Sustainable Energy
- DEFRA Market Transformation Programme
- DEFRA The UK element of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme
- UK Energy Research Centre
- Map of UK power stations
- Map of UK renewable power installations
- Friends of the Earth: The Future starts here: the route to a low carbon economy
- Planning Policy Statement 22 (PPS22) on renewable energy
In the media
- September 2006, NewBuilder, Climate Change perceived as greater threat than terrorism
- May 2006, BBC, Survey: Your electricity choices revealed
- May 2006, The Times, Minister's links to nuclear lobby
- May 2006, BBC, Blair backs nuclear power plans
- March 2006, The Independent, Global warming: Your chance to change the climate
- March 2006, BBC, Is DIY power generation going to be the next big thing?
- January 2006, BBC, The UK's energy debate has been framed wrongly
- May 2002, European Environmental Bureau, Biofuels not as green as they sound
- June 2000, RCEP, Royal commission calls for transformation in the UK's use of energy to counter climate change
International
Categories
Articles to be expanded | Economy of the United Kingdom | Environment of the United Kingdom | Politics of the United Kingdom | Transport in the United Kingdom | Climate change | Energy in the United Kingdom | Energy conservation | Energy economics | Renewable energy | National electric power policy