Hoysala Empire

ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Hoysala Empire
Sala fighting the tiger, the symbol of Hoysala Empire
Founded	10th century
Language	Kannada
Regal Capitals	Belur </br>Halebidu
Greatest king	Vishnuvardhana
Government	Monarchy
Preceding states	Western Chalukya
Succeeding state	Vijayanagar Empire
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Symmetrical architecture Somanathapura

The Hoysala Empire (Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) ruled large parts of southern India at its peak in the 13th century. The earliest Hoysala records are from 950. The Hoysalas were in power until 1343 CE. Belur was their first capital. Later it became Halebidu, Karnataka. They were originally hill people from Malnad, Karnataka and this region remained their power base through out their rule. In the 12th century, they annexed large areas including most of Kannada country and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri river delta including Srirangam and Kanchipuram. The conflict between their overlords, the Western Chalukyas, and the rising southern Kalachuri gave their ambitions momentum. Similarly, they used the struggle between the waning Cholas and the Pandyas of Tamil country to their advantage.

The Hoysala era was a golden age in the development of art, architecture and religion. The Hoysala empire is remembered today primarily for its architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka, the finest examples of which are the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu and Keshava temple at Somanathapura. Architecture in the Vesara or Karnata dravida tradition reached its peak of expression. The Hoysala kings were influenced by Jainism and Hinduism. King Vishnuvardhana and his successors were followers of Vaishnavism. Kannada was their native language and they encouraged Kannada and Sanskrit literature.

Three of India's great philosophers, Ramanujacharya, Basavanna and Madhvacharya lived during this time and spread their teachings. Literature in Kannada language in the Vaishnava, Shaiva and Jain traditions flourished. Sanskrit works spanning Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita philosophy were written. Being an age of emancipation for women, poetesses like Akka Mahadevi gained fame. Administrative responsibilities were no longer the monopoly of men. Queen Umadevi took charge of administration from the capital Halebidu during the absence of Veera Ballala II. Performances in music and dance by women became popular. Queen Shantaladevi was a noted dancer.

History

Hoysala country, malnad Karnataka

Legend

The origin of the name "Hoysala" is part of popular Kannada folklore. Early in his youth, Sala, a member of what was at that time a tribe, was instructed by his Jain guru Sudatta, to strike dead a tiger he encountered in the vicinity of the temple of the Goddess Vasantika at Sosevur. Guru Sudatta Muni was teaching his disciples at the temple. The word "strike" literally translates to "hoy" in Hale Kannada (Old Kannada). Hence the name "Hoy-sala". The first written appearance of this legend is the Belur inscription of Vishnuvardhana. However, inconsistencies in facts that are associated with the Sala story, have prevented historians in giving credence to it.^[1] Hoysala temples nonetheless have a sculpture depicting the fight between Sala and the tiger on top of the sukanasi (tower of vestibule that connects shrine and the main hall).^[2] Historians speculate that the legend may have gained popularity after king Vishnuvardhana's victory over the Cholas at Talakad, the tiger being the emblem of the Cholas.

Map

Early History

Hoysala inscriptions state that Sala hailed from Shashakapura (Sosevur). Historians have argued that the founders of the dynasty hailed from hill regions of Angadi in present day Mudigere taluk of Chikmagalur district.^[3] Angadi, in turn, has been identified with Sosevur. The fact that they were originally a family of hill chieftains from Malnad Karnataka (Malepas) is confirmed by their title Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male(hills) chiefs" which is used frequently in their inscriptions.^[4] A claim has been made that the Hoysalas originated in the coastal areas of Uttara Kannada district and another that they were descendants of the ancient Velir people who were indigenous to the Malnad(Western Ghats) region of Karnataka and existed since the days of Emperor Ashoka.^[5]

Historians have identified chieftains earlier than Nripa Kama II, father of Vinayaditya. Their family record first starts from 950 with one Arekalla followed by Maruga as the chieftains during their days as a feudatories of the Western Ganga Dynasty. Their history becomes clearer from Munda (the chief after Nripa Kama I) who was possibly the ruler up to 1026.^[6] He was followed by the popularly known Nripa Kama II who held titles like Permanadi indicating an early Western Ganga Dynasty alliance.^[7] Hoysalas began their rule as subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gradually established their own empire in Karnataka. Hoysala period is today remembered as one of the glorious periods in the history of Karnataka. Notable among Hoysala kings were Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II and Veera Ballala III.

Consolidation

During the 11th century, the Hoysala chiefs distinguished themselves by serving their overlords the Western Chalukyas in their campaigns against the Cholas and the kingdom of Malwa. They cultivated marital relationships with the Chalukyas in this period. The Hoysalas rose as a prominent feudatory during the long rule of Vinayaditya. During the time of Ereyanga, they moved their capital from Sosevur to Belur. Under Vishnuvardhana, the Hoysalas achieved for the first time the dignity of a real kingdom.^[8]

The Hoysalas became an independent power by defeating the Western Chalukyas during the rule of Veera Ballala II and were the paramount rulers in southern deccan thereafter. During this time, peninsular India saw a four way struggle for hegemony, the other kingdoms being the Pandyas, Kakatiya and Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.^[9] They ruled from Belur for about twenty five years. Later the capital was relocated to Halebidu during the rule of Vishnuvardhana.

The Hoysalas continued to patronize art and literature during the peak of their empire. Vishnuvardhana wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in 1116, and in commemoration of his victory, built the Vijayanarayana (Chennakesava) temple at Belur. His commander Ketamalla built the famous Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu.

Though Vishnuvardhana did not succeed in his efforts to overthrow the Chalukyas, his grandson Veera Ballala II not only freed himself from subordination, but also defeated Seuna Bhillama V at Soraturu in 1190, after defeating Chalukya King Someshwara IV in 1187. Popular Kannada folklore suggests that during the time of Veera Ballala II, the city of Bangalore was founded.^[10] Veera Ballala II repulsed the attacks by the Pandyas of Tamil Nadu and later assumed the title "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya). His other titles were "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi), "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi). Historians opine he was the greatest of the Hoysala monarchs.^[11]

Later, in the days of his son Vira Narasimha II, the Hoysalas extended their foothold in Tamil country. The Tamil city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam became the second capital of the Hoysalas. They were regarded as practically the arbiters of South Indian politics.^[12]

Veera Ballala III, the last Hoysala, was known for his military prowess. He regained territory lost to the Pandyas during the rule of Sundara Pandya and expanded his kingdom to encompass all of South India, south of the Krishna River but faced multiple attacks from the Delhi Sultan whose control over the region had extended south to present day Maharashtra. The rule of Veera Ballala II and Veera Ballala III saw the consolidation and domination of Southern Deccan as a single empire.^[13]

Continuity

In the 13th century major political changes were taking place in the Deccan. Significant areas of northern India were under Muslim rule. Alla-ud-din Khilji, the Sultan of Delhi, was anxious to bring hither-to isolated South India under rule from Delhi. His faithful commander Malik Kafur plundered Devagiri, the Seuna capital in 1311. The Seuna power was completely destroyed by 1318 and the Hoysala capital Halebidu (also called Dorasamudra or Dwarasamudra) was sacked.^[14] In 1327 the Sultanate armies plundered Halebidu again.

Around this time Veera Ballala III made Tiruvannamalai in present day Tamil Nadu an alternate capital from which to fight the Delhi Sultan and the Sultanate of Madurai that had been formed after the defeat of the Pandyas around 1326. The Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal had succumbed to the invasion from Delhi by 1323 and the tiny kingdom of Kampili was crushed by 1327. The Hoysalas were the only remaining Hindu empire who could resist the invading armies. Veera Ballala III founded Hosapattana (identified as the later day Vijayanagara, in his northern territory) as an alternate capital on the banks of Tungabhadra River to fight the invading armies.^[15]After Veera Ballala's death in battle in Madurai (1343), the Vijayanagar Empire, founded by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I with the help of the Advaitinsaint Vidyaranya became the new empire of South India.^[16]

Architecture

Main article: Hoysala architecture

See also: Chennakesava Temple, Hoysaleswara temple, and Somanathapura

Hoysala sculpture in Belur

The Hoysala claim to immortality is more due to their patronage of art and architecture than their conquests. Their era saw brisk temple building activity throughout the length and breadth of the kingdom. This was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas to the north. Their style of architecture, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style as it was,^[17] shows distinct Dravidian influences. Despite these influences, it is still an independent architectural tradition in itself.^[18] It is described as the Karnata Dravida style as opposed to the traditional Dravida style.^[19]

Decoratd pillar, Hoysaleswara temple

Their sculpture is an example of art that focussed on depicting feminine beauty, grace and physique.^[20] One of the hallmarks of Hoysala architecture is their attention to detail and precision. In line with their penchant for minutiae, their vimanas (the tower over the shrine) also focussed more on delicate finish and intricate carvings than on height.^[21] The Chennakesava Temple at Belur built by Dasoja and Chavana of Balligavi (Shimoga district) in 1117, the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu built by Kedaroja in 1121 (both of which are proposed UNESCO world heritage sites),^[22] the Keshava temple at Somanathapura built by Ruvari Malithamma in 1279 and the temples at Arasikere (1220), Amrithapura (1196), Belavadi (1200), Nuggehalli (1246) etc., are prime examples of Hoysala art. While the temples at Belur and Halebidu are the best known examples of the sculptural beauty, the Hoysala art finds more complete expression in the smaller and the lesser known temples.^[23] The outer walls of all these temples contain an intricate array of stone sculptures. The great temple of Halebidu, has been described as an outstanding example of Hindu architecture^[24] and as the 'supreme climax of Indian architecture'.^[25]

Religion

See also: Ramanujacharya, Basavanna, and Madhvacharya

While Vaishnava Hinduism gained popularity from the time of Vishnuvardhana, many embraced Jainism and Virashaivaism. However, the Hoysala times saw the decline in popularity of Jainsim and the growth of Hinduism, a practice that continued into the Vijayanagar empire. However, the kings remained tolerant to all religions. Shantala Devi, queen of Vishnuvardhana was a Jaina, but commissioned the Kappe Chennigaraya temple in Belur. During the rule of the Hoysalas, three important religious developments took place in present day Karnataka. These developments were inspired by three great philosophers, Ramanujacharya, Basavanna and Madhvacharya.

Ramanujacharya

Ramanujacharya was born in SriPerumbudur (1017) in Tamil Nadu. While his predecessor Shankaracharya taught the philosophy of strict monism (Advaita), Ramanujacharya propounded the qualified monism or Vishishtadvaita. He was a student of the Advaita teacher Yadvaprakasha of Kanchi where he learnt the Vedas and Upanishad. Later he disagreed with his guru (teacher) and took to self study. The Vaishnava saint Yamuna who headed the Srirangam matha had heard of Ramanujacharya's scholarly attainment, encouraged him to move to Srirangam and initiated him into Srivaishnavism (a sect of Vaishnava faith). Eventually, Ramanujacharya succeeded as the head of the monastery after the death of his guru.

It was during this time that Ramanujacharya wrote Sribhashya, a critique on the Advaita philosophy of Sankaracharya.^[26] He upheld the worship of God with many attributes and provided flexibility in ritual practices to accommodate Shudras (lower caste) in temple worship thus providing emancipation for all. Ramanujacharya toured India teaching his philosophy. He came into conflict with the Chola king of Tamil country who was a strict Shaiva (worshipper of Lord Shiva). Ramanujacharya came to Hoysala country and founded a Matha (monastery) at Melkote.^[27] He lived here for many years and finally went back to Srirangam. He died at the age of 120 in 1137.

Basavanna

Basavanna

Basavanna (also known as Basava and Basaveshwara) was born in the town of Bagevadi in 1105, in present day Bijapur district, Karnataka. This region was under the control of the Western Chalukyas who were the overlords of the Hoysalas of South Karnataka and Kalachuris of northern deccan.

Basavanna refused to accept the Brahmin thread ceremony during his youth. He was very erudite in Sanskrit and Kannada. He left for Kudala Sangama and was changed by his stay there. He met an ascetic Ishanyaguru, under whose influence he gained vision, broadened his knowledge and he had glimpses of his life's mission.^[28] From Kudala Sangama, Basavanna went to Mangalawada and took work under king Bijjala II and rose to a position of authority as a member of the king's council. During this time he began to teach his beliefs in simple Kannada. Large groups of people seeking emancipation used to gather around him to listen to his discourses.

When Bijjala II captured Kalyani (now known as Basavakalyan in Bidar district), the capital of the Western Chalukyas, Basavanna moved there with the king. From the Anubhava Mantapa (a place of religious gatherings), Basavanna and other great Veerashaiva saints like Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Madivala Machayya spoke of their mystic experiences.^[29] Through their teachings a new religious order called Virashaivaism gained popularity. Its basic tenet was its opposition to a caste based society. These mystics expressed themselves through poetry known today as Vachanas.^[30] Basavanna's unorthodox ways made him well known and people from all over the deccan joined the congregations. These devotees were the Sharanas (devotees) of Lord Shiva. Famous poets in the Hoysala court like Harihara, Raghavanka were Virashaiva by faith. By the time he died in 1168 his teachings had spread far and wide in the deccan.

Madhvacharya

Sri Madhvacharya

Another great saint who influenced the growth of Hinduism during the Hoysala time was Madhvacharya.^[31] He was born in present day Pajaka, Udupi, (1238) Karnataka. His teachings had a strong influence on the later haridasa movement of the 14th century - 16th century. His philosophy was popularised by the later saints of Udupi order. Being a part of the bhakti movement, the haridasas' helped foster strong Hindu sentiment during the rule of the Vijayanagar Empire. Purandaradasa, the father of carnatic music and other great dasas like Kanakadasa etc., were followers of Madhvacharya.^[32] Many saints of the Madhvacharya order were Rajguru (patron saint) to the Vijayanagar kings.

Tradition holds that Madhvacharya was an incarnation of Vayu, Hanuman and Bhima. Achyutapragna, a Advaitain saint was his guru. He taught Madhva the Vedas and Upanishad. Madhvacharya questioned his own guru and later travelled India twice, trouncing many scholars in philosophical debates. He initiated Naraharitirtha, the minister of Kalinga into his order. He wrote 37 works on Dvaita philosophy (Dulaism) in Sanskrit and founded eight mathas in Udupi. He was critical of the teachings of Shankaracharya and argued that the world is real and was not an illusion.^[33]

Though he was devoted to Lord Vishnu, Madhvacharya did not oppose the worship of Shiva. The teachings of Madhvacharya inspired the haridasas to write thousands of devotional songs in Kannada language (devaranama). This unique and original poetic literature, a sum contribution from all sects of Hindu society is known as Dasa Sahitya.

Impact

The impact of these religious developments on culture, literature, poetry and even architecture in South India was profound. Important works of literature and poetry based on these philosophies were written during the coming centuries. The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of Vijayanagar empire patronised Vaishnavism. A Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagar.^[34] Famous scholars in later Mysore Kingdom wrote many Vaishnavite works upholding the teachings of Ramanujacharya.^[35] The Keerthinarayana temple at Talakad and Keshava temple at Somanathapura are Vaishnava temples. King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism.^[36]

Basavanna's contributions towards Indian society has been commemorated by the Government of India by the release of a coin in his memory.^[37] His statue has been installed in front of the Indian parliament in New Delhi.^[38] Kannada literature has been enriched by the thousands of vachanas written ever since his time.

Madhvacharya's teachings came at a time when much of northern India was already under Muslim rule. The later saints of his order, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vyasatirtha, Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa, Vadirajatirtha spread his teachings through out South India in the 14th century - 16th century time. His teachings inspired later day philosophers like Vallabhacharya in Gujarat and Chaitanya in Bengal.^[39] Later, yet another wave of bhakti (devotion) in the 17th century - 18th century found inspiration in his teachings. Dasas like Vijayadasa, Gopaladasa from Karnataka region spread his teachings far and wide.^[40]

Literature

Main article: Hoysala literature

Kannada and Sanskrit literature was prolific during the Hoysala rule. The 12th century saw the champu style of works go out of vogue with the rise in popularity of new styles like Sangatya style of compositions, Shatpadi and Tripadi (seven and three line verses) and lyrical poems with refrain called Ragale. Jain works continued to extol the virtues of Tirthankaras.^[41]

While many great Kannada scholars adorned the Hoysala court, most famous among them were Janna, Rudrabhatta, Raghavanka and Harihara. Their works are enduring classics in Kannada language. Janna, a Jain scholar wrote Yashodharacharite (1209), a classic, which describes the story of a king who intended to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to a local deity Mariamma. Taking pity on the boys, the king released them and gave up the practice of human sacrifice.^[42] He received the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavichakravarthi) by king Veera Ballala II.

The earliest well known Brahminical writer was Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin who wrote Jagannatha Vijaya in champu style. The work deals with the life of Lord Krishna up to his fight with the demon Banasura. This work is based on an earlier work Vishnupurana. He was patronised by Chandramouli, a minister of king Veera Ballala II.^[43]

Harihara, a Virashaiva writer who was patronised by king Narasimha I wrote the classic Girijakalyana in the old Jain Champu style. The work describes the marraige of Lord Shiva and Parvati in ten sections.^[44] He was one of the earliest Virashaiva writers not belonging to the Vachana sahitya tradition. He came from a family of accountants (Karanikas) from Halebidu and spent many years in Hampi writing more than one hundred Ragales, poems in blank verse, in praise of Lord Virupaksha, a form of God Shiva.

Harihar's nephew Raghavanka, a native of Hampi was the first to introduce the Shatpadi metre tradition into Kannada works. His Harishchandra kavya is considered a classic though it occassionaly violates strict rules of grammar^[45]

In Sanskrit, the great philosopher Madhvacharya wrote Rigbhshya on Brahmasutras and many polemical works rebutting the doctrines of other schools of Vedas. He relied more on the Puranas than the Vedas for logical proof of his philosophy.^[46] Another famous work was Rudraprshnabhashya by Vidyatirtha.

Administration

Garuda pillar, Halebidu

Governance

The Hoysalas followed the Western Chalukya and Western Ganga Dynasty method of governance.^[47] Historians opine that in the Hoysala empire which was highly centralised, the king sought the advice of five ministers (Pancha Pradhanas) while others claim a higher number.^[48] Under any circumstance, by the 13th century, with the empire having grown to its largest extent, the number of ministers had grown considerably with each having limited authority. Inscriptions mention many names with responsibilities tied to foreign affairs (Sandhivigrahi), treasurer (Mahabhandari or Hiranyabhandari), personal secretary (Paramavishvasi), chief master of robes (Mahapasayita), justice (Dharmadhikari), central register (Kaditha), head of the State Secretariat (Srikaranadhikari) etc. Some ministers also oversaw clusters of departments (Sarvadhikari). Army commanders were called Dandanayaka (or Senadhipati).

The Garudas were the elite bodyguards of kings and queens who committed suicide upon the demise of their master.^[49] They were known as lenkas (heroes) or jolavalis (indebted to the king for food) and velavalis (those who stood by the king at all times). They served the king the way the mythical eagle Garuda served Lord Vishnu. Virgal (Hero stone) erected in memory of such heroes are called Garuda pillar. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu depicts heroes brandishing knives and others cutting their own heads. Kuvara Lakshma, a minister and bodyguard of Veera Ballala II took his own life and that of his wife and other bodyguards upon the death of his master. The details of his loyalty is etched on this shasana (inscription).

Land division and currency

The kingdom was divided into provinces (Nadu and Vishayas).^[50] Further division of land was into Kampanas and Deshas. Under the caretaker commander were minister (Mahapradhana), treasurer (Bhandari), clerk (Senabove) and junior officers (Heggades). Feudatory families like Alupas, Santharas, Chengalvas, Kongalvas, Sindas were allowed to continue to govern their respective territories. The Hoysalas minted gold coins with Kannada and Devanagari legends. King Vishnuvardhana minted coins with legends "victor at Nolambavadi" (Nolambavadigonda), "victor at Talakad" (Talakadugonda), "victor of the hills" (Malaparolgonda).^[51] Their gold coin was called Honnu or Gadyana and weighed 62 grains of gold. Pana or Hana was 1/10th of the Honnu. Haga was ¼th of the Pana. Visa was ¼th of Haga. There were coins called Bele and Kani as well. It must be noted that some of these terms Hana, Bele are still used in Kannada language and mean "money" and "cost" respectively.

Agriculture and Trade

Irrigation

The administration sustained itself through agriculture.^[52] Land grants were made by the kings to religious beneficiaries like Brahmins and Jains and persons rewarded for services rendered to the king. The type of land grant was generally wetland which was already under cultivation. This was popular in the fertile river valleys of the Tungabhadra and Kaveri. In addition, clearing of forests for cultivation was viewed favourably as it not only brought new sources of revenue but also created job opportunities for the landless and introduced forest dwellers to a more agrarian life style. Sometimes wasteland was also given as gift. Whenever land was cleared for cultivation, it was on a large scale. Knowledge of agriculture included assessing irrigation systems like tanks, reservoirs with sluices, canals and wells which were built and maintained at the expense of local villagers. The more impressive irrigation tanks such as Vishnusagara, Shantisagara, Ballalarayasagara were created at the expense of the state.^[53] Irrespective of whether the expense and control came from local or state bodies, organizing labour to till the land was taken up at the village and across village levels and the job of cultivation was largely that of the landless. Cattle farming was attractive in the highlands (malnad regions) from where diary products, fruits and spices came. Paddy and corn were popular in the plains (Bailnad). In Kannada country, key figures in rural areas were the rich land owners called gavunda or gauda and heggade.^[54] They are mentioned in inscriptions relating to land transactions, maintenance of irrigation, collection of taxes and works of village council. The praja gavunda (gavunda of people) was lower in status than the wealthy prabhu gavunda (lord of gavundas). The gavundas sometimes had a dual role as village representatives and appointees of the state. Some judicial responsibilities were also included like raising a militia if required.

Imports and Exports

Import of horses on the western seaboard was a flourishing business and inscriptions speak of many Brahmin merchants who were active. Arabs made immense wealth from the unending need for horses from Indian kingdoms.^[55] Rich forest produce like Teak was exported through ports of present day Kerela. Merchants from this region settled down in Arasikere, Halebidu in addition to Jain traders.^[56] Virgal (hero stone) in the coastal areas depict ships indicating active sea trade and also a technologically developed shipping fleets. Piracy was common and virgals made for fallen heroes have been found. Inscriptions mention a flourishing textile industry. Trade with overseas kingdoms reached unprecedented levels. Sung dynasty records from China mention Indian merchants in ports of South China. Chinese interest in Indian astrology and Alchemy is well known.^[57] South India exported textiles, spices, medecinal plants, precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels, gold, ivory, Rhino horn, ebony and camphor to China. The same products and others like aloe wood, perfumes, Sandalwood and condiments reached western ports like Dhofar, Aden, Siraf on the Persian gulf. Cairo and Alexandria were in active trade across the Arabian Sea. Architects (Vishwakarmas), sculptors, quarry workers, goldsmiths and others whose trade directly or indirectly related to construction of temples were also prosperous due to the vigorous temple building activities undertaken.^[58]

Tax system

Tax assessment was done by the village assembly who were responsible for collecting for the government. Land revenue was called Siddhaya and included Kula or original assessment and various cesses. Cesses were collected in proportion to Kula.^[59] Taxes were levied on professions, marriage, goods in transit on chariots, carriages, domesticated animals. Taxes on commodities like gold, precious stones, perfumes, Sandalwood, ropes, yarn, residence, hearth, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses and produce like black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar are mentioned in records.^[60] Cattle tax was called balavana and looms tax was called maggadere. Fines for violating laws were also collected. The village assembly could levy tax for a specific purpose like construction of a water tanks.

Society

Women

Dancer, Belur

The Hoysala society was comparatively liberal. Woman enjoyed administrative powers like queen Umadevi who administered Halebidu in the absence of Veera Ballala II.^[61] Women made progress in the realms of music, dance, literature, poetry, politics and administration. Queen Shantaladevi was a noted dancer. Akka Mahadevi, a great Vachana poet who renounced the temporal world in favour of one of devotion became an example for woman of the day.^[62] The practice of sati, was prevalent and prostitution enjoyed social acceptance. Devadasis (temple dancers) were common in temples and some were well educated. They came to be treated with deference. Their accomplishments gave them more freedom in that they could distance themselves from social conventions to a greater degree. Like in most of India, the Indian caste system was conspicuously present.

Town and market

Trade on the west coast brought many foreigners to India including Arabs, Jews, Persians, Chinese and from the Malay peninsula.^[63] Large scale migration of people from Kannada country to present day Tamil Nadu happened during this time. With the expansion of Hoysala territory in Tamil country, these immigrants went as officers and soldiers of the empire and were given land concessions.^[64] Migration of Tamil sculptors to Belur and Halebidu is also apparent from the presence of some Chola style sculptures in a few Hoysala temples.^[65] The marketplace was the nuclei of urban centers. This is where materials and produce was brought and exchanged hands. These were the location of recurring festivals and fairs. In South India, towns were called Pattana or Pattanam and the market place Naraga or Nagaram. Important market places gradually grew into townships and so did famous pilgrim places. Shravanabelagola in Hassan district developed from a place of religion in the 7th century to an important settlement by the 12th century. Rich Jains were established here. The market place was also closely tied with temple administration.

Role of temples

Temple tank, Belur

Temple construction, which was prolific was not entirely for religious reasons. Temples acted as local courts or as surrogate courts, especially when built from royal endowments. They were visualised as palaces and the rituals marking daily routine of the deity imitated those of the king. Temples also received local patronage, especially from rich landlords. Temples built from royal patronage took on a aura of leading ceremonial centers. When king Vishnuvardhana built the Vaishnava Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the town was transformed into a great city. Competition from the Shaiva merchants of Halebidu resulted in the construction of the famous Hoysaleswara temple, which brought the town into prominence.^[66] Temples not built from royal patronage evolved into complex institutions related not only to religious requirements but also to fiscal, political and cultural needs. These temples were normally built in rural areas. Irrespective of source patronage, temples were also establishments that provided employment to hundreds of people. Temple funds maintained families of priests, record keepers, administrators, guards, service providers, garland makers, dancers, devadasis, sculptors, carpenters and craftsmen. Temples were also source of loans. Inscriptions mention 12%-15% interest on loans.^[67] In short, Hindu temples began to take on the shape of wealthy Buddhist monasteries.

Language

Old Kannada inscription, early 12th century Doddagaddavalli

Usage of Kannada and Sanskrit were extensive. Temples served as local schools where learned Brahmins imparted education in Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning were called Ghatikas. Jain and Buddhist monasteries educated novice monks. Kannada the local language found extensive use in multiple areas. The rise of devotional movements saw the usage of Kannada as a means to express ecstatic experience of closeness to the deity (vachanas and devaranama). At another level, Kannada was used in local and state archives to record locations and rights related to land grants. Literary works were written in the local language on palm leaves which were tied together. Where as in the previous centuries when Jain works had dominated Kannada literature, Shaiva and early Brahminical works also became popular. Works in Sanskrit included, poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama.^[68] Inscriptions were of three kinds. They were in Kannada, Sanskrit and bilingual. Those sections of bilingual inscriptions that stated the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions tended to be in Sanskrit but the actual terms of the grants which included information on the land, its boundaries, participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, witnesses etc. were in Kannada to ensure the content was well understood by the locals without ambiguity.^[69]

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