Islam in India
Islam is the second-largest religion in India (after Hinduism - 76.5%), where Muslims number around 174 million (16.4%)*Census of India; Govt. site with detailed data from 2001 census [1]. India has the second-largest population of Muslims in the world after Indonesia(however, if one were to count the Muslim population of India total prior to partition, India would have the largest Muslim population in the world). Since its introduction to India, Islam has made religious, artistic, philosophical, culture, social and political contributions to Indian history, heritage and life.
Arrival of Islam
Contrary to general belief, Islam came to India long before Muslim invasions of India. Islamic influence first came to be felt in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders. Trade relations between Arabia and the Indian subcontinent are very ancient. Arab traders used to visit the Malabar region, which was a link between them and ports of South East Asia, to trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia. According to Historians Elliot and Dowson in their book The History of India as told by its own Historians, the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 AD. H.G. Rawlinson, In his book Ancient and Medieval History of India[2] claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century AD. This fact is corroborated, by J. Sturrock in his South Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals[3], and also by Haridas Bhattacharya in cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.[4]It was with the advent of Islam that the Arabs became a prominent cultural force in the world. The Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went[5].
The first Indian mosque was built in 629 A.D, at the behest of Cheraman Perumal, during the life time of Muhammad(c. 571 – 632)in Kodungallur by Malik Bin Deenar.[6][7][8]
In Malabar the Mappilas may be the first community to come to the fold of Islam because they were more closely connected with the Arabs than others. Intensive missionary activities went on the coast and a number of natives also embraced Islam. These new converts were now added to the pile of the Mappila community. Thus among the Mapilas, we find, both the descendants of the Arabs through local women and the converts from among the local people [9]
In the 8th century, the province of Sindh was conquered by Syrian Arabs led by Muhammad bin Qasim. Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate.In the first half of the 10th century, Mahmud of Ghazni added the Punjab to the Ghaznavid Empire and conducted several raids deeper into modern day India. A more successful invasion came at the end of the 12th century by Muhammad of Ghor. This eventually led to the formation of the Delhi Sultanate.
Conversion Controversy
Considerable controversy exists both in scholary and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:[10]
- That muslims sought conversion through jihad or political violence [10]
- A related view is that conversions occurred for pragmatic reasons such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite [10]
- Conversion was a result of the actions of Sufi saints and involved a genuine change of heart [10]
- Conversion from the lower castes for social mobility and a rejection of oppressive caste strictures [citation needed]
- Was a combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart [10]
Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting the failure of the project to Islamicize the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled with the politics of the partition and communalism in India.[10] Other reasons given for the size of the Muslim expansion are the genocide of Hindu's[citation needed], migrations and the influence of Arab traders along the Indian Ocean.[citation needed]
An estimate of the number of people killed, based on the Muslim chronicles and demographic calculations, was done by K.S. Lal in his book Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, who claimed that between 1000 CE and 1500 CE, the population of Hindus decreased by 80 million. His work has come under criticism by historians such as Simon Digby (School of Oriental and African Studies) and Irfan Habib for its agenda and lack of accurate data in pre-census times. Lal has responded to these criticisms in later works. Historians such as Will Durant contend that Islam spread through violence. [11][12] Sir Jadunath Sarkar contends that that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic jihad against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects." [13] In particular the records kept by al-Utbi, Mahmud al-Ghazni's secretary, in the Tarikh-i-Yamini document several episodes of bloody military campaigns. Hindus who converted to Islam however were not completely immune to persecution due to the Muslim Caste System in India established by Ziauddin al-Barani in the Fatawa-i Jahandari. [14], where they were regarded as an "Ajlaf" caste and subjected to discrimination by the "Ashraf" castes[15]
The disputers of the "Conversion by the Sword Theory" point to the presence of the strong Muslim communities found in Southern India, modern day Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Western Burma, Indonesia and Philippines coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim Empires in the Indian Sub-Continent as refutation to the Conversion by Sword Theory. The legacy of Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue even today. Different population estimates by economic historian Angus Maddison[16] and by Jean-Noël Biraben[17] also show that India's population did not decrease between 1000 and 1500, but in fact increased by about 35 million during that time(dubious; discuss) .
Not all Muslim invaders were simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were borne of Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of Ibn Batuta who travelled through Delhi in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population. His memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, from Persia and Turkey were often favored with important posts at the royal courts suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India - II), however points to Muhammad bin Tughlaq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.[18].
Sufism and spread of Islam
Sufis (Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and monism. The Sufis' unorthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice. Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chisti, Nizam-ud-din Auliya, Shah Jalal, Amir Khusro trained Sufi groups for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic Empire was established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of colour and beauty to what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the artisan and Untouchable communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. Even today Sufi tombs are visited by Hindus and Muslims alike.
Role of Muslims in India's freedom movement
The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers is immense in India's struggle against the British. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai are a few of Muslims who devoted their life for this purpose. Muhammad Ashfaq Ullah Khan of Shahjehanpur who conspired and looted the British treasury at Kakori (Lucknow) to cripple the administration and who, when asked for his last will, before execution, desired: No desire is left except one that some one may put a little soil of my motherland in my winding sheet. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (popular as Frontier Gandhi), a great nationalist who spent 45 of his 95 years of life in jail for the freedom of India; Barakatullah of Bhopal, one of the founders of the Ghadar party which created a network of anti-British organizations and who died penniless in Germany in l927; Syed Rahmat Shah of the Ghadar party who worked as an underground revolutionary in France and was hanged for his part in the unsuccessful Ghadar (mutiny)uprising in 1915; Ali Ahmad Siddiqui of Faizabad (UP) who planned the Indian Mutiny in Malaya and Burma along with Syed Mujtaba Hussain of Jaunpur and who was hanged In 1917; Vakkom Abdul Khadar of Kerala who participated in "Quit India" struggle in 1942 was hanged ; Umar Subhani, an industrialist and a millionaire of Bombay who provided Gandhi with congress expenses and who ultimately gave his life for the cause of independence. Among Muslim women, Hazrat Mahal, Asghari Begum, Bi Amma contributed heavily in the struggle of freedom from Britishers.
The following is a list of some famous Muslims who fought for a unified India (as opposed to Pakistan): Maulana Azad, Hakeem Ajmal Khan, Tipu Sultan, Hyder Ali, Maulana Shaukat Ali, Hasrat Mohani, Professor Barkatullah, Dr. Zakir Husain , Saifuddin Kichlu, Allama Shibli Nomani, Vakkom Abdul Khadir, Dr. Manzoor Abdul Wahab, ,Bahadur Shah Zafar, Hakeem Nusrat Husain, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, Samad Achakzai, Maulana Mohammad Ali, Colonel Shahnawaz, Dr. M.A.Ansari, Rafi Ahmad Kidwai, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmad, Ansar Harwani, Tak Sherwani, Viqarul Mulk, Mustsafa Husain, VM Ubaidullah, SR Rahim, Badruddin Tyabjee, and Moulvi Abdul Hamid.
However, Muslims such as Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy would lead the Muslim League party to desire a segregated Islamic Republic of Pakistan and, to that effectm instigate massive riots such as Direct Action Day against Hindus which eventually spread outwards into massive anti-Hindu pogroms such as the Noakhali Massacre, as well as retaliatory attacks by Hindus against Muslims in Punjab and the North Western Frontier Province.
Law and politics
Indian Muslims are among the freest in the world to live according to their faith. Muslims in India are Governed by The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937.[19]. it directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in a number of different areas mainly related to family law which includes marriage, Mahr(Dower), Divorce, Maintenance, Gifts, Wakf, Wills and Inheritance.[20] The courts generally apply the Hanafi Sunni law, with exceptions made only for those areas where Shia law differed substantially from Sunni practice.
Although the Indian constitution provided equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion, Article 44 recommended a Uniform civil code. The attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under common civil code was strongly resisted and is still viewed by Indian Muslims as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority group of the country. All India Muslim Personal Law Board was established for the protection and continued applicability of “Muslim Personal Law” i.e. Shariat Application Act in India.
Hindu-Muslim Conflict
India maintains a constitutional commitment to secularism and does not distinguish amongst the people on the basis of religious beliefs. However, Hindu-Muslim relations in India can be characterized as conflictual. This communal conflict is inherited from the convulsive and turbulent course of history, starting with the Islamic invasion of India. The aftermath of the Partition of India in 1947 saw large scale sectarian strife and bloodshed throughout the nation. Since then India have witnessed occasional bouts of large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities.
Violence against Hindus by Muslims took place in the Sindhi riots of 1980 when Muslims in Gujarat burnt Hindus alive [1]. In addition, Islamist attacks on Hindus in Kashmir such as the Wandhama massacre and Kaluchak Massacre contribute to the rising communal tensions in the region. The ethnic cleansing of the Hindu Kashmiri Pandits from the region by the Islamists has worsened the situation. For details see Terrorism in Kashmir.
The sense of insecurity experienced by the Indian Muslims in the post partition period has been compounded in the last decade with the demolition of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya in 1992 by Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party and its sister organisation like Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh , Shiv Sena, Bajrang Dal, Vishwa Hindu Parishad, etc. In addition, the 1993 Mumbai Bombings perpetrated by the Muslim Mafia don Dawood Ibrahim and the D-Company, following the Bombay Riots against Muslims by Hindu Nationalists fomented the communal divide.Muslim-Hindu conflicts has also been formented due to the mushrooming of radical muslim organisations like SIMI (Students Islamic Movement of India) whose goal is to establilsh Islamic rule in India. Other groups such as Lashkar-e-Toiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed have been formenting bias in the local Muslim populace against Hindus.These groups are believed to be responsible for the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings.
Some of the most violent of such events took place in recent times during the infamous Gujarat riots in which around one thousand people died. The riots were in retaliation to the the Godhra Train Burning in which 50 Hindus belonging to group called the Vishwa Hindu Parishad returning from disputed site of Babri mosque were burnt alive at the Godhra railway station.The train burning was a planned act executed by the Ghanchi Muslims in the region against the Hindu Pilgrims as confirmed by the Gujarat police[2]. The commission appointed to investigate this finding alleged that the fire was an accident, but the results were refuted by the High Court in 2006[3].
This event is seen by many, including international "human rights" organizations as the "utter failure of the government of India to provide security to its citizens".In a report subtexted "State Participation and Complicity in Communal Violence in Gujarat," the Human Rights Watch condemned the government for allegedly delaying protection to Muslims against the violence that followed. The muslim-planned Bombay bomb blasts of 1993 and the train bomb blasts in 2003 that followed has only aggraveted the conflict.Human rights organizations such as "Human Rights Watch" who made such allegations have been severaly criticized for bigotry and bias against Hindus. Their reports were claimed to hold a systemic anti-Hindu bias by academics such as Arvin Bahl of Princeton University [4].
Following are some of the issues that have the potential to be used in aggravating the communal divide for political mobilization as has been done in the past. It should be noted that most of the below issues are not only central to the integrity and practice of Hinduism, but also contribute to the inclination of Muslims to support Muslims across the border and the Ghettoism of Muslims. Islam is a minority religion in the country. whereas in India, Muslims are provided equal rights, oppurtunities and freedom.
Muslims in Modern India
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Like in all minorities, Muslims have played roles in various fields of the country's advancement.
Prominent Indian Muslims include:
- Khawaja Abdul Hamid, who in 1935 founded one of the first Indian-owned industries in the colonial era, CIPLA (The Chemical, Industrial & Pharmaceutical Laboratories). In 1939, when Mahatma Gandhi visited CIPLA he wrote that he was "delighted to visit this Indian enterprise". CIPLA today is a pharmaceutical company with a global presence, it's products being sold in over 150 countries worldwide.
- There have been three Muslim presidents of India, Dr. Zakir Hussain, Dr Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and the current president, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
- Salim Ali (November 12, 1896 - July 27, 1987) is one of India's best known ornithologists and naturalists. Known as the "Birdman of India", Salim Ali was among the first Indians to conduct systematic bird surveys in India and his books have contributed enormously to understanding and protecting India's birds and also other wildlife.
- Azim Premji is the founder of and the highest stake holder in Wipro, one of the leading software service providing companies in India. In 2005, Yusuf Hameed of CIPLA and Azim Premji received one of India's highest civilian awards, the Padma Bhushan for his contributions to the country.
Muslims are also playing pivotal roles in the advertising industry, film industry (Bollywood), modern art, academics, theatre and sports. Some large industries like Wipro Ltd., Wockhardt, Himalaya health care, Hamdard Laboratories and Mirza Tanners are owned by Muslims.
see: List of notable Muslims of independent India
Muslim Institutes
There are several well established Muslim institutes in India. Here is a list of reputed institutes established by Muslims.
- Modern Universities and institutes: Aligarh Muslim University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Hamdard University, Al Ameen Educational Society, Al-Kabir educational society.
- Traditional Islamic Universities: Sunni Markaz Kerala (the largest charitable, non governmental, non profit islamic institution in india), Raza Academy, Darul Uloom Deoband, Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama .
Population Statistics
Islam in India |
| Architecture |
| Major figures |
| Communities |
North Indian Muslims • Mappilas • Tamil Muslims |
| Islamic Sects |
| Culture |
| Other Topics |
Indian Muslim nationalism • Indian Wahabi movement |
This box: view • • edit</div> |
</br>Islam is India's largest minority religion, with Muslims officially constituting 16.4% of the country's population, or 174 million people as of the 2001 census. However, unofficial estimates claim a far higher figure supposedly discounted in censuses. For instance, in an interview with a well circulated newspaper of India The Hindu Justice K.M. Yusuf, a retired Judge from Calcutta High Court and Chairman of West Bengal Minority Commission, has said that the real percentage of Muslims in India is at least 20%.[5] Even pro Hindutva people say in their reports that the Muslim population has reached 30%.[6]
The largest concentrations--about 47% of all Muslims in India, according to the 2001 census--live in the 3 states of Uttar Pradesh (30.7 million) (18.5%), West Bengal (20.2 million) (25%), and Bihar (13.7 million) (16.5%). Muslims represent a majority of the local population only in Jammu and Kashmir (67 % in 2001) and Lakshadweep (95 %). High concentrations of Muslims are found in the eastern states of Assam (31 %) and West Bengal (25 %), and in the southern state of Kerala (25 %) and Karnataka (12.2%). Muslims are generally more educated, urban, integrated and prosperous in the Western and Southern states of India than in the Northern and Eastern ones; this could be due to partition when the more affluent and educated population migrated over the border, to Pakistan in the North and Bangladesh(then East Pakistan) in the East. India has the second largest Muslim population (after Indonesia) and also the third largest Shia Muslim population (after Iran and Pakistan) in the world.
The analysis on religious data, among the six major religious communities, shows that the decadal growth of the Muslims was the highest (36.0%) in the 2001 census. This statistic suggested that while the growth rate for Hindus has fallen between 1991 and 2001 compared with 1981 and 1991, Muslims have actually grown faster in the last decade, this led Indian media[21] and different Muslim bashing pro-hindutva parties raising an alarm at the growing number of Muslims and expressing concern about the demographic imbalance[22].
A grave objection to this theory is the fact that the 1991 census did not include Jammu & Kashmir, the only Muslim majority state and strife-torn Assam, while the 2001 census does include Jammu & Kashmir. Adjusted for this, the Muslim growth rate plunges from 36 per cent to 29.3 per cent.
Muslim population in Indian states according to 2001 Census.[23]
| State | Population | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Lakshadweep | 57,903 | 95.4707 |
| Jammu & Kashmir | 6,793,240 | 66.9700 |
| Assam | 8,240,611 | 30.9152 |
| West Bengal | 20,240,543 | 25.2451 |
| Kerala | 7,863,842 | 24.6969 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 30,740,158 | 18.4961 |
| Bihar | 13,722,048 | 16.5329 |
| Jharkhand | 3,731,308 | 13.8474 |
| Karnataka | 6,463,127 | 12.2291 |
| Uttaranchal | 1,012,141 | 11.9225 |
| Delhi | 1,623,520 | 11.7217 |
| Maharashtra | 10,270,485 | 10.6014 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 6,986,856 | 9.1679 |
| Gujarat | 4,592,854 | 9.0641 |
| Manipur | 190,939 | 8.8121 |
| Rajasthan | 4,788,227 | 8.4737 |
| Andaman & Nicobar Islands | 29,265 | 8.2170 |
| Tripura | 254,442 | 7.9533 |
| Daman & Diu | 12,281 | 7.7628 |
| Goa | 92,210 | 6.8422 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 3,841,449 | 6.3655 |
| Pondicherry | 59,358 | 6.0921 |
| Haryana | 1,222,916 | 5.7836 |
| Tamil Nadu | 3,470,647 | 5.5614 |
| Meghalaya | 99,169 | 4.2767 |
| Chandigarh | 35,548 | 3.9470 |
| Dadra & Nagar Haveli | 6,524 | 2.9589 |
| Orissa | 761,985 | 2.0703 |
| Chhattisgarh | 409,615 | 1.9661 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 119,512 | 1.9663 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 20,675 | 1.8830 |
| Nagaland | 35,005 | 1.7590 |
| Punjab | 382,045 | 1.5684 |
| Sikkim | 7,693 | 1.4224 |
| Mizoram | 10,099 | 1.1365 |
</small>
Islamic Traditions in South Asia
A large number of Indian Muslims follow Sunni Barelwi (Sufi) traditions attached to the memory of great Sufi saints. Sufism is a mystical path (tarika) as distinct from the legalistic path of the sharia. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behavior, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples ([murid]s) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of Moinuddin Chishti (1142-1236), who settled in Ajmer, Rajasthan, and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His Chishtiyya order went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached to India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. Many Sufis were well known for weaving music, dance, intoxicants, and local folktales into their songs and lectures. In this way, they created a large literature in regional languages that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.
The leadership of the Muslim community has pursued various directions in the evolution of Indian Islam during the twentieth century. The most conservative wing has typically rested on the education system provided by the hundreds of religious training institutes (madrasa) throughout the country, which have tended to stress the study of the Qur'anand Islamic texts in Arabic and Persian but little else. Several national movements have emerged from this sector of the Muslim community. The Jamaati Islami (Islamic Party), founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an overtly Islamic government. The Indian branch of the party had about 3,000 active members and 40,000 sympathizers in the mid-1980s. The Tablighi Jamaat (Outreach Society) became active after the 1940s as a movement, primarily among the ulema (religious leaders), stressing personal renewal, prayer, a missionary spirit, and attention to orthodoxy. It has been highly critical of the kind of activities that occur in and around Sufi shrines and remains a minor if respected force in the training of the ulema. Conversely, other ulema have upheld the legitimacy of mass religion, including exaltation of pirs and the memory of the Prophet. A powerful secularising drive led by Syed Ahmad Khan resulted in the foundation of Aligarh Muslim University (1875 as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College)--with a broader, more modern curriculum -- and other major Muslim universities.
Indo Islamic art and architecture
Post - Independence
The Muslims of India have generally been treated well although there have been many anti-Muslim riots.
- Indian Muslim Students
- Muslims in India
- Muslims in India Census 2001
- IndianMuslims.info Informational website on Indian Muslims
- South Asian Islam Links
- Islam, Muslim and Politics in India
- IndianMuslimsOrg One-start portal for IndianMuslims
See also
- Mappila (Muslim community from Kerala)
- Bombay(film) a film by Mani Rathnam, which depicts a real face of Muslim Hindu relations in India's rural areas
Notes and References
- This article contains material from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which are United States government publications in the public domain.
- ^ The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved on 2006-06-15.
- ^ ISBN 81-86050-79-5 Ancient and Medieval History of India]
- ^ Sturrock, J.,South Canara and Madras District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895)
- ^ ISBN 81-85843-05-8 Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV
- ^ http://www.jaihoon.com/watan/indarbmappilacommunity.htm -Genesis and Growth of the Mappila Community]
- ^ -Cheraman Juma Masjid A Secular Heritage
- ^ Bahrain tribune World’s second oldest mosque is in India
- ^ -A mosque from a Hindu king
- ^ - Genesis and Growth of the Mappila Community
- ^ a b c d e f der Veer, pg 27-29
- ^ Durant, Will. "The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage" (page 459).
- ^ Elst, Koenraad. "Was there an Islamic "Genocide" of Hindus?", Kashmir Herald, 2006-08-25. Retrieved on 2006-08-25.
- ^ Sarkar, Jadunath. How the Muslims forcibly converted the Hindus of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh to Islam.
- ^ Caste in Indian Muslim Society
- ^ Aggarwal, Patrap (1978). Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India. Manohar.
- ^ Maddison, Angus (2006). The Contours of the World Economy 1-2030 AD. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Biraben, Jean-Noël (2003). "The rising numbers of humankind", Populations & Societies 394.
- ^ Islam and the sub-continent - appraising its impact
- ^ The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937
- ^ Article discussing Muslim personal law in India
- ^ The Muslim growth rate and the media
- ^ - The population bogey Frontline Coverstory Volume 21 - Issue 20, Sept. 25 - Oct. 08, 2004
- ^ Indian Census 2001 - Religion
Literature
- Elliot and Dowson: The History of India as told by its own Historians, New Delhi reprint, 1990.
- Majumdar, R. C. (ed.), The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume VI, The Delhi Sultanate, Bombay, 1960; Volume VII, The Mughal Empire, Bombay, 1973.
- M K A Siddiqui (ed.), Marginal Muslim Communities In India, Institute of Objective Studies, New Delhi (2004) (review)
See also
- Islam by country,
- Indian Muslim nationalism
- Muslim population growth in India
- Islam in Pakistan
- Islam in Bangladesh
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