Ojibwa

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Ojibwa
"One Called From A Distance" (Midwewinind) of the White Earth Band, 1894.
Total population	175,000
Regions with significant populations	United States, Canada
Language	English, Ojibwe
Religion	Catholicism, Methodism, Midewiwin <tr> <th style="background-color:#fee8ab;">Related ethnic groups</th><td style="background-color:#fff6d9;">Ottawa, Potawatomi and other Algonquian peoples</td> </tr>

"Chippewa" redirects here. For other uses, see Chippewa (disambiguation).

The Ojibwa, Aanishanabe or Chippewa (also Ojibwe, Ojibway, Chippeway, Anishinaabe, or Anishinabek) is the largest group of Native Americans/First Nations north of Mexico, including Métis. They are the third largest in the USA, surpassed only by Cherokee and Navajo. They are about equally divided between the United States and Canada. Because they formerly were located mainly around Sault Ste. Marie, at the outlet of Lake Superior, the French referred to them as Saulteurs; Ojibwa who subsequently moved to the Prairie provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. The major component group of the Anishinaabe, in the US they number over 100,000 living in an area stretching across the north from Michigan to Montana. Another 76,000, in 125 bands, live in Canada, stretching from western Québec to eastern British Columbia. They are known for their Birch bark canoes, birch bark scrolls, the use of cowrie shells, and wild rice, and for the fact that they were the only Native Americans to defeat the Sioux. [1]

Name

The autonym for this group of Anishinaabeg is "Ojibwe" (plural: Ojibweg). This name is commonly anglicized as "Ojibwa". The name "Chippewa" is an anglicized corruption of "Ojibwa". Although "Chippewa" is more common in the USA and "Ojibwa" predominates in Canada, both terms do exist in both countries. The exact meaning of the name "Ojibwe" is not known; however, two most common explanations are 1) it is derived from "Ojiibwabwe" meaning "[Those who] cook until it puckers" referring to their fire-curing of moccasin seams to make them water-proof and 2) the most likely, it is derived from the word "Ozhibii'oweg" meaning "[Those who] keep Records of a Vision" referring to their form of pictorial writing pictograph used in Midewiwin rites. Across many Ojibwa communities across Canada and the US, the more generalized name of "Anishinaabe(-g)" is becoming more common.

Language

Main article: Anishinaabe language

Many still speak the Ojibwe language known as Anishinaabemowin or Ojibwemowin. The language belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group, and is descended from Proto-Algonquian. Among its sister languages are Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee. Anishinaabemowin is frequently referred to as a "Central Algonquian" language; however, Central Algonquian is an areal grouping rather than a genetic one. Ojibwemowin is the fourth most spoken Native language in North America (after Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut). Many decades of fur trading with the French established the language as one of the key trade languages of the Great Lakes and the northern Great Plains. The Ojibwe presence was made highly visible among non-Native Americans and around the world by the popularity of Longfellow's 1855 epic poem, The Song of Hiawatha. Many toponyms with an origin in Ojibwa words are found in this epic.

History

Pre-contact

According to their tradition, and from recordings in birch bark scrolls, they came from the eastern areas of North America, or Turtle Island, and from along the east coast. According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent) beings appeared to the peoples in the Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn, i.e. Eastern Land) to teach the peoples of the mide way of life. However, the one of the seven great miigis beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the Waabanakiing whenever the people were in its presence. The six great miigis beings remained to teach while the one returned into the ocean. The six great miigis beings then established doodem (clans) for the peoples in the east. Of these doodem, the five original Anishinaabe doodem were the Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (Tender, i.e., Bear) and Moozoonsii (Little Moose), then these six miigis beings returned into the ocean as well. If the seventh miigis being stayed, it would have established the Thunderbird doodem. At a later time, one of these miigis beings appeared in a vision to relate a prophecy. The prophecy stated that if the Anishinaabeg did not move further west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new settlements and European immigrants that would arrive soon. Their migration path would be symbolized by a series of smaller Turtle Islands, which was confirmed with miigis shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving assurance from the their "Allied Brothers" (i.e., Mi'kmaq) and "Father" (i.e., Abnaki) of their safety in having the Anishinaabeg move inland, they advanced along the St. Lawrence River to the Ottawa River to Lake Nipissing, and then to the Great Lakes. First of these smaller Turtle Islands was Mooniyaa, which Mooniyaang (Montreal, Quebec) now stands. The "second stopping place" was in the vicinity of the Wayaanag-gakaabikaa (Concave Waterfalls, i.e. Niagara Falls). At their "third stopping place" near the present-day city of Detroit, Michigan, the Anishinaabeg divided into six divisions, of which the Ojibwa was one of these six. The first significant Ojibwa culture-centre was their "fourth stopping place" on Manidoo Minising (Manitoulin Island). Their first political-centre was referred as their "fifth stopping place", in their present country at Baawiting (Sault Ste. Marie). Continuing their westward expansion, the Ojibwa divided into the "northern branch" following the north-shore of Lake Superior, and "southern branch" following the south-shore of the same lake. In their expansion westward, the "northern branch" divided into a "westerly group" and a "southerly group". The "southern branch" and the "southerly group" of the "northern branch" came together at their "sixth stopping place" on Spirit Island (46°41′15″N, 092°11′21″W) located in the St. Louis River estuary of Duluth/Superior region where the people were directed by the miigis being in a vision to go to the "place where there are food (i.e. wild rice) upon the waters." Their second major settlement, referred as their "seventh stopping place", was at Shaugawaumikong (or Zhaagawaamikong, French, Chequamegon) on the southern shore of Lake Superior, near the present La Pointe near Bayfield, Wisconsin. The "westerly group" of the "northern branch" continued their westward expansion along the Rainy River, Red River of the North and across the northern Great Plains until reaching the Pacific Northwest. Along their migration to the west they came across many miigis, or cowry shells, as told in the prophecy.

Post-contact

Kay be sen day way We Win 1857

The Ojibwa were part of a long term alliance with the Ottawa and Potawatomi First Nations, called the Council of Three Fires and which fought with the Iroquois Confederacy and the Sioux. The Ojibwa expanded eastward taking over the lands alongside the eastern shores of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay. The Ojibwa allied themselves with the French in the French and Indian War, and with the British in the War of 1812.

In the USA, the government attempted to remove all the Ojibwa to Minnesota west of Mississippi River culminating in the Sandy Lake Tragedy and several hundred deaths. Through the efforts of Chief Buffalo and popular opinion against Ojibwa removal, the bands east of the Mississippi were allowed to return to permanent reservations on ceded territory. A few families were removed to Kansas as part of the Potawatomi removal.

In Canada, the cession of land by treaty or purchase was governed by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and subsequently most of the land in Upper Canada was ceded to the Crown. In northwestern Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta the numbered treaties were signed. British Columbia had no signed treaties until the late 1900's, and most areas have no treaties yet. There are ongoing treaty land entitlements to settle and negotiate. The treaties are constantly being reinterpreted by the courts because many of them are vague and difficult to apply in modern times.

See Treaty Timeline below - and see Individual Treaties with maps at [2].

Culture

Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage - 1857

The Ojibwa live in groups (otherwise known as "bands"). Most Ojibwa, except for the Plains bands, lived a sedentary lifestyle, engaging in fishing, hunting, the farming of maize and squash, and the harvesting of Manoomin (wild rice). Their typical dwelling was the wiigiwaam (wigwam), built either as a waaginogaan (domed-loged) or as a nasawa'ogaan (pointed-lodge), made of birch bark, juniper bark and willow saplings. They also developed a form of pictorial writing used in religious rites of the Midewiwin and recorded on birch bark scrolls. The scrolls are complicated with a lot of geometrical and mathematical knowledge communicated through the pictures. The miigis shell (cowry shell) was also used in ceremonies, and this shell can only be found from far away coastal areas, indicating a vast trade network at some time across the continent. The use and trade of copper across the continent is also proof of a very large area of trading that took place thousands of years ago, as far back as the Hopewell culture. Certain types of rock used for spear and arrow heads were also traded over large distances. The use of petroforms, petroglyphs, and pictographs was common throughout their traditional territories. Petroforms and medicine wheels were a way to teach important concepts of four directions, astronomical observations about the seasons, and as a memorizing tool for certain stories and beliefs.

The Ojibwe people and culture are alive and growing today. During the summer months, the people attend jiingotamog for the spiritual and niimi'idimaa for a social gathering (pow-wows or "pau waus") at various reservations in the Anishinaabe-Aki (Anishinaabe Country). Many people still follow the traditional ways of harvesting wild rice, picking berries, hunting, making medicines, and making maple sugar. Many of the Ojibwa take part in sundance ceremonies across the continent.

The Ojibwa would bury their dead in a burial mound; many erect a jiibegamig or a "spirit-house" over each mound. Instead of a headstone with the deceased's name inscribed upon it, a traditional burial mound would typically have a wooden marker, inscribed with the deceased's doodem. Due to the distinct features of these burials, Ojibwa graves have been often looted by grave robbers. In the United States, many Ojibwa communities safe-guard their burial mounds through the enforcement of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.

Several Ojibwa bands in the United States cooperate in the Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Lake Superior-Lake Michigan areas. The commission follows the directives of U.S. agencies to run several wilderness areas. See List of U.S. state and tribal wilderness areas. Some Minnesota Ojibwa tribal councils cooperate in the 1854 Authority, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Arrowhead Region. In Canada, the Grand Council of Treaty #3 manages the Treaty 3 hunting and fishing rights around Lake of the Woods.

Clan system

The Ojibwe people were divided into a number of odoodemag (clans; singular: odoodem) named for animal totems (or doodem, as an Ojibwe person would say this word in English). The five original totems were Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (Tender, i.e., Bear) and Moozwaanowe ("Little" Moose-tail). The Crane totem was the most vocal among the Ojibwa, and the Bear was the largest — so large, in fact, that it was sub-divided into body parts such as the head, the ribs and the feet.

Traditionally, each band had a self-regulating council consisting of leaders of the communities' clans or odoodeman, with the band often identified by the principle doodem. In meeting others, the traditional greeting among the Ojibwe peoples is "What is your doodem?" ("Aaniin, odoodemaayan?") in order to establish a social conduct between the two meeting parties as family, friends or enemies. Today, the greeting has been shortened to "Aaniin."

There were at least twenty-one totems in all, recorded by William Whipple Warren. Other recorders list much less but with different doodem types. The Clan types today are quite extensive, but usually only a hand-full of odoodemag are found in each of the Ojibwa communities: Moozwaanowe ("Little" Moose-tail), Moozens (Little Moose), Waabizheshi (Marten), Amik(waa) (Beaver), Wazhashk (Muskrat), Gaag (Porcupine), Esiban (Raccoon), Zhaangweshi (Mink), Mooz (Moose), Moozoons(ii) (Little Moose), Adik (Caribou), Waawaashkeshi (Deer), Omashkooz (Stag), Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Googoonh or Namens (Fish), Mikinaak (Snapping Turtle), Mishiikenh (Mud Turtle), Miskwaadesi (Painted Turtle), Ginebig (Snake), Omazaandamo (Black Snake), Midewewe or Zhiishiigwe (Rattle Snake), Omakakii (Frog), Nigig (Otter), Nibiinaabe (Merman), Maanameg (Catfish), Adikameg (Whitefish), Namebin (Sucker), Name or Maame (Sturgeon), Ginoozhe (Pike), Nooke (Tender "Bear"), Bizhiw (Lynx), Ma’iingan (Wolf), Baswenaazhi or Ajijaak (Crane), Binesi (Thunderbird), Gekek (Hawk), Omigizi (Bald Eagle), Giniw (Golden Eagle), Bibiigiwizens (Sparrowhawk), Aan'aawenh (Pintail), Owewe (Wild Goose or "Swan"), Bineshiinh (Bird), Nika (Goose), Maang (Loon), (Makade)Zhiishiib ((Black)Duck), Gayaashk (Gull), Jiwiiskwiiskiwe (Snipe), Omooshka'oozi (Heron), Zhedeg (Pelicans), Ogiishkimanisii (Kingfisher), Aandeg (Crow), Aagask (Grouse) and Nesawaakwaad ("Forked Tree"). Of these other clans, they still can be categorized into one of the five original doodem. For example, the Aan'aawenh group includes the Maang (Loon), Nika (Goose), and Makadezhiishiib (Black Duck) odoodemag while the Moozwaanowe group includes the Waabizheshi (Marten), Mooz (Moose) and Adik (Caribou) odoodemag.

Like any other Algonquian groups, the Ojibwa clan system served as a system of government as well as a means of dividing labor. The Baswenaazhi group were traditionally charged with outgoing International communications, Aan'aawenh charged with Internal/Domestic communications, Wawaazisii group with teaching and healing, Moozwaanowe group with scouting, hunting and gathering, and Nooke group with defense and healing. Some national sub-divisions were simply referred by their major Clan component. A example of this would be Maandawe-doodem ("Fisher-clan") of the Meshkwahkihaki peoples, who live along the south shore of Lake Superior. More inland than the Maandawe-doodem were the Waagosh-doodem ("Fox clan") of the Meshkwahkihaki, who are called the Fox Tribe in English. When the Maandawe were defeated in a major battle between the Ojibwe and the Meshkwahkihaki peoples, the surviving Maandawe were adopted as part of the Ojibwa nation, but instead as the Waabizheshi-doodem ("Marten clan"). The Waabizheshi clan is also used to denote a form of adoption, i.e., a non-native father and Ojibwe mother. In other instances, for example, odoodem communities such as the Amikwaa were treated as fully interdependent Nations of the Anishinaabek Confederacy.

Some doodem indicate non-Ojibwe origins. Other than Waabizheshi, these include the Ma'iingan-doodem (Wolf Clan) for Dakota and Migizi-doodem (Eagle Clan) for Americans. There are other odoodem considered rare today among the Ojibwa because the odoodem have migrated into other tribes, such as the Nibiinaabe-doodem (Merman Clan), which shows up as the Water-spirits Clan of the Winnebagoes.

Kinship

Ojibwa understanding of kinship is complex, taking into account of the not only the immediate family but also the extended family. It is considered a modified Bifurcate merging kinship system. Consequently, Ojibwa would speak of not only about grandfather (nimishoomis) and grandmother (nookomis), father (noos) and mother (ningashi), and son (ningozis) and daughter (nindaanis), but also would speak of elder brother (nisayenh), younger sibling (nishiimenh), cross-uncle (nizhishenh), parallel-aunt (ninooshenh), male sibling of same gender (niikaanis), female sibling of same gender (niidigikoonh) and sibling of opposite gender (nindawemaa), and cross-cousin of the opposite gender (niinimoshenh), to name only a few. Siblings generally share the same term with parallel-cousins as with any Bifurcate merging kinship system, but the modified system allows for younger sibling to share the same kinship term with younger cross-cousins (nishiimenh). In addition the complexity wanes as one goes away from the speaker's immediate generation, with some degree of complexity retained with female relatives (for example, ninooshenh is "my mother's sister" or "my father's sister-in-law"—i.e., my parallel-aunt—but also "my parent's female cross-cousin"). In both with the great-grandparents and older generations and with the great-grandchildren and younger generations, the Ojibwa collectively calls them aanikoobijigan. This sign of kinship/clans speaks of the very nature of the Anishinaabe's entire philosophy/lifestyle, that is of interconnectedness and balance between all living generations and all generations of the past and of the future.

Spiritual beliefs

The Ojibwa have a number of spiritual beliefs passed down by oral tradition under the Midewiwin teachings. These include a creation narrative and a recounting of the origins of ceremonies and rituals. Spiritual beliefs and rituals were very important to the Ojibwa because spirits guided them through life. Birch bark scrolls and Petroforms were used to pass along knowledge and information, as well as used for ceremonies. Pictographs were also used for ceremonial use, and Medicine Wheels also. The Sun Dance ceremony was revived in Canada following many years of persecution and certain parts of the ceremonies being outlawed in Canada. The sweatlodge is still used during important ceremonies about the four directions and to pass along the oral history of the people. Teaching lodges are still common today to teach the next generations about the language and ancient ways of the past. These old ways, ideas, and teachings are still preserved today with these living ceremonies.

In popular culture

The legend of the Ojibwa "Windigo," in which tribesmen identify with a cannabalistic monster and prey on their families, is a story with many meanings, one of them points to the consequences of greed and the destruction that results from it. It is mentioned in the fiction of Thomas Pynchon. In his story Of Father's and Sons, Ernest Hemingway uses two Ojibway as secondary characters.

During the sixth season of The Sopranos, an old Ojibwe proverb is shown in prominence and quoted in at least three episodes.

In the comic strip For Better or For Worse, Elizabeth was a schoolteacher in Mtigwaki, a fictional Ojibwa village in Northern Ontario.

Bands and First Nations of Ojibwe people

Chippewa chief Rocky Boy

Warren, in his History of the Ojibway People, records 10 major divisions of the Ojibwa in the United States, omitting the Ojibwa located in Michigan, western Minnesota and westward, and all of Canada:

These 10 major divisions and other major groups that Warren did not record developed into these Ojibwa Bands and First Nations of today. Bands are listed under their respective tribes where possible.

• Aamjiwnaang First Nation
• Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways [3]
• Bay Mills Chippewa Community
• Biinjitiwabik Zaaging Anishnabek First Nation
• Cat Lake First Nation
• Chapleau Ojibway First Nation
• Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation
• Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point
• Chippewas of Rama Mnjikaning First Nation
• The Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation
• Chippewa of the Thames First Nation
• Chippewas of Saugeen Ojibway Territory
• Chippewa Cree Tribe of Rocky Boys Indian Reservation
• Curve Lake First Nation
• Cutler First Nation
• Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians
• Garden River First Nation
• Grassy Narrows First Nation (Asabiinyashkosiwagong Nitam-Anishinaabeg)
• Islands in the Trent Waters
• Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation
• Kinistin First Nation
• Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug
• Magnetawan First Nation
• Lac Des Mille Lacs First Nation
• Lac La Croix First Nation
• Lac Seul First Nation
• Lake Nipigon Ojibway First Nation
• Lake Superior Chippewa Tribe
  • Bad River Chippewa Band
  • Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
  • Keweenaw Bay Indian Community
    • L'Anse Band of Chippewa Indians
    • Ontonagon Band of Chippewa Indians
  • Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians
    • Bois Brule River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
    • Chippewa River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
    • Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians
    • Removable St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin
  • Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
  • Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa [4]
  • Sokaogon Chippewa Community
  • St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin
• Minnesota Chippewa Tribe
  • Bois Forte Band of Chippewa Indians
    • Bois Forte Band of Chippewa Indians
    • Muskrat Portage Band of Chippewa Indians
  • Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
  • Grand Portage Band of Chippewa
  • Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe
    • Cass Lake Band of Chippewa
    • Lake Winnibigoshish Band of Chippewa
    • Leech Lake Band of Pillagers
    • Removable Lake Superior Bands of Chippewa of the Chippewa Reservation
    • White Oak Point Band of Mississippi Chippewa
  • Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe
    • Mille Lacs Indians
    • Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
    • Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
    • St. Croix Band of Chippewa Indians of Minnesota
      • Kettle River Band of Chippewa Indians
      • Snake and Knife Rivers Band of Chippewa Indians
  • White Earth Band of Chippewa
    • Gull Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
    • Otter Tail Band of Pillagers
    • Rabbit Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
    • Removable Mille Lacs Indians
    • Removable Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
    • Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
• Ojibways of the Pic River First Nation
• Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians (Historical)
• Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians
  • Lac des Bois Band of Chippewa Indians
• Sandy Bay Ojibway First Nation
• Sagamok Anishnawbek First Nation
• Saginaw Chippewa Tribal Council
• Sagkeeng First Nation
• Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians
• Saulteau First Nation
• Shawanaga First Nation
• Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians
• Wabasseemoong Independent Nation
• Wabauskang First Nation
• Wabun Tribal Council [5]
  • Beaverhouse First Nation
  • Brunswick House First Nation
  • Chapleau Ojibwe First Nation
  • Matachewan First Nation
  • Mattagami First Nation
  • Wahgoshig First Nation
• Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation
• Wahnapitae First Nation
• Washagamis Bay First Nation
• Wauzhushk Onigum First Nation
• Whitefish Bay First Nation
• Whitefish Lake First Nation
• Whitefish River First Nation
• Whitesand First Nation
• Wikwemikong Unceded First Nation
• Windigo First Nations Council [6]
  • Bearskin Lake First Nation
  • Cat Lake First Nation
  • Koocheching First Nation
  • North Caribou Lake First Nation
  • Sachigo Lake First Nation
  • Slate Falls First Nation
  • Whitewater Lake First Nation
• Wabigoon Lake Ojibway First Nation
• Whitefish Lake First Nation
• Yellow Quill First Nation

Other Tribes known by their Ojibwa/Ottawa Names

Ojibwa Treaties

Treaties with France

• La Grande Paix de Montréal (1701)

Treaties with Great Britain

• Treaty of Fort Niagara (1764)
• Treaty of Fort Niagara (1781)
• Indian Officers' Land Treaty (1783)
• The Crawford Purchases (1783)
• Between the Lakes Purchase (1784)
• The McKee Purchase (1790)
• Between the Lakes Purchase (1792)
• Chenail Ecarte (Sombra Township) Purchase (1796)
• London Township Purchase (1796)
• Land for Joseph Brant (1797)
• Penetanguishene Harbour (1798)
• St. Joseph Island (1798)
• Toronto Purchase (1805)
• Head-of-the-Lake Purchase (1806)
• Lake Simcoe Land (1815)
• Lake Simcoe-Nottawasaga Purchase (1818)
• Ajetance Purchase (1818)
• Rice Lake Purchase (1818)
• The Rideau Purchase (1819)
• Long Woods Purchase (1822)
• Huron Tract Purchase (1827)
• Saugeen Tract Agreement (1836)
• Manitoulin Agreement (1836)
• The Robinson Treaties
  • Ojibewa Indians Of Lake Superior (1850)
  • Ojibewa Indians Of Lake Huron (1850)
• Manitoulin Island Treaty (1862)

Treaties with the United States

• Treaty of Fort McIntosh (1785)
• Treaty of Fort Harmar (1789)
• Treaty of Greenville (1795)
• Fort Industry (1805)
• Treaty of Detroit (1807)
• Treaty of Brownstown (1808)
• Treaty of Spring Wells (1815)
• Treaty of St. Louis (1816) - Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi
• Treaty of Miami Rapids (1817)
• St. Mary's Treaty (1818)
• Treaty of Saginaw (1819)
• Treaty of Saúlt Ste. Marie (1820)
• Treaty of L'Arbre Croche and Michilimackinac (1820)
• Treaty of Chicago (1821)
• Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1825)
• Treaty of Fond du Lac (1826)
• Treaty of Butte des Morts (1827)
• Treaty of Green Bay (1828)
• Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829)
• Treaty of Chicago (1833)
• Treaty of Washington (1836) - Ottawa & Chippewa
• Treaty of Washington (1836) - Swan Creek & Black River Bands
• Treaty of Detroit (1837)
• Treaty of St. Peters (1837) - White Pine Treaty
• Treaty of Flint River (1837)
• Saganaw Treaties
  • Treaty of Saganaw (1838)
  • Supplimental Treaty (1839)
• Treaty of La Pointe (1842) - Copper Treaty
• Treaty of Potawatomi Creek (1846)
• Treaty of Fond du Lac (1847)
• Treaty of Leech Lake (1847)
• Treaty of La Pointe (1854)
• Treaty of Washington (1855)
• Treaty of Detroit (1855) - Ottawa & Chippewa
• Treaty of Detroit (1855) - Sault Ste. Marie Band
• Treaty of Detroit (1855) - Swan Creek & Black River Bands
• Treaty of Sac and Fox Agency (1859)
• Treaty of Washington (1863)
• Treaty of Old Crossing (1863)
• Treaty of Old Crossing (1864)
• Treaty of Washington (1864)
• Treaty of Isabella Reservation (1864)
• Treaty of Washington (1866)
• Treaty of Washington (1867)

Treaties with Canada

• Treaty No. 1 (1871)
• Treaty No. 2 (1871)
• Treaty No. 3 (1873) - Northwest Angle Treaty
• Treaty No. 4 (1874) - Qu'Appelle Treaty
• Treaty No. 5 (1875)
• Treaty No. 6 (1876)
• Treaty No. 8 (1899)
• Treaty No. 9 (1905-1906) - James Bay Treaty
• Treaty No. 5, Adhesions (1908-1910)
• The Williams Treaties (1923)
  • The Chippewa Indians
  • The Mississauga Indians
• Treaty No. 9, Adhesions (1929-1930)

References

• F. Densmore, Chippewa Customs (1929, repr. 1970)
• H. Hickerson, The Chippewa and Their Neighbors (1970)
• R. Landes, Ojibwa Sociology (1937, repr. 1969)
• R. Landes, Ojibwa Woman (1938, repr. 1971)
• F. Symington, The Canadian Indian (1969)

External links

• Chippewa treaties online and maps of the tribal areas discussed
• Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission
• Midwest Treaty Network
• Ojibwe culture and history, a lengthy and detailed discussion
• Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary, an extensive electronic Ojibwe-English/English-Ojibwe language dictionary
• Kevin L. Callahan's An Introduction to Ojibway Culture and History
• Ojibwe Song Pictures, recorded by Frances Desmore
• Digital recreation of the 'Chippewa' entry from Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, edited by Frederick Webb Hodge
• Ojibwa migration through Manitoba
• video: The Making of an Ojibwe Hand Drum
• Nindoodemag: The Significance of Algonquian Kinship Networks in the Eastern Great Lakes Region, 1600–1701
• Ojibwe clan systems: A cultural conection to the natural world

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